Use @result{} instead of -->

[bpt/guile.git] / doc / ref / goops.texi

@c -*-texinfo-*-
@c This is part of the GNU Guile Reference Manual.
@c Copyright (C)  2008, 2009
@c   Free Software Foundation, Inc.
@c See the file guile.texi for copying conditions.

@macro goops
GOOPS
@end macro

@macro guile
Guile
@end macro

@node GOOPS
@chapter GOOPS

@goops{} is the object oriented extension to @guile{}. Its
implementation is derived from @w{STk-3.99.3} by Erick Gallesio and
version 1.3 of Gregor Kiczales @cite{Tiny-Clos}.  It is very close in
spirit to CLOS, the Common Lisp Object System (@cite{CLtL2}) but is
adapted for the Scheme language.  While GOOPS is not compatible with any
of these systems, GOOPS contains a compatibility module which allows for
execution of STKlos programs.

Briefly stated, the @goops{} extension gives the user a full object
oriented system with multiple inheritance and generic functions with
multi-method dispatch.  Furthermore, the implementation relies on a true
meta object protocol, in the spirit of the one defined for CLOS
(@cite{Gregor Kiczales: A Metaobject Protocol}).

@menu
* Quick Start::
* Tutorial::
* Reference Manual::
* MOP Specification::
@end menu

@node Quick Start
@section Quick Start

To give an immediate flavour of what GOOPS can do, here is a very
quick introduction to its main operations.

To start using GOOPS, load the @code{(oop goops)} module:

@smalllisp
(use-modules (oop goops))
@end smalllisp

We're now ready to try some basic GOOPS functionality.

@menu
* Methods::
* User-defined types::
* Asking for the type of an object::
@end menu

@node Methods
@subsection Methods

A GOOPS method is like a Scheme procedure except that it is
specialized for a particular set of argument types.

@lisp
(define-method (+ (x <string>) (y <string>))
  (string-append x y))

(+ "abc" "de") @result{} "abcde"
@end lisp

If @code{+} is used with arguments that do not match the method's
types, Guile falls back to using the normal Scheme @code{+} procedure.

@lisp
(+ 1 2) @result{} 3
@end lisp


@node User-defined types
@subsection User-defined types

@lisp
(define-class <2D-vector> ()
  (x #:init-value 0 #:accessor x-component #:init-keyword #:x)
  (y #:init-value 0 #:accessor y-component #:init-keyword #:y))

@group
(use-modules (ice-9 format))

(define-method (write (obj <2D-vector>) port)
  (display (format #f "<~S, ~S>" (x-component obj) (y-component obj))
           port))

(define v (make <2D-vector> #:x 3 #:y 4))

v @result{} <3, 4>
@end group

@group
(define-method (+ (x <2D-vector>) (y <2D-vector>))
  (make <2D-vector>
        #:x (+ (x-component x) (x-component y))
        #:y (+ (y-component x) (y-component y))))

(+ v v) @result{} <6, 8>
@end group
@end lisp

@node Asking for the type of an object
@subsection Types

@example
(class-of v) @result{} #<<class> <2D-vector> 40241ac0>
<2D-vector>  @result{} #<<class> <2D-vector> 40241ac0>
(class-of 1) @result{} #<<class> <integer> 401b2a98>
<integer>    @result{} #<<class> <integer> 401b2a98>

(is-a? v <2D-vector>) @result{} #t
@end example

@node Tutorial
@section Tutorial
@include goops-tutorial.texi

@node Reference Manual
@section Reference Manual

This chapter is the GOOPS reference manual.  It aims to describe all the
syntax, procedures, options and associated concepts that a typical
application author would need to understand in order to use GOOPS
effectively in their application.  It also describes what is meant by
the GOOPS ``metaobject protocol'' (aka ``MOP''), and indicates how
authors can use the metaobject protocol to customize the behaviour of
GOOPS itself.

For a detailed specification of the GOOPS metaobject protocol, see
@ref{MOP Specification}.

@menu
* Introductory Remarks::
* Defining New Classes::
* Creating Instances::
* Accessing Slots::
* Creating Generic Functions::
* Adding Methods to Generic Functions::
* Invoking Generic Functions::
* Redefining a Class::
* Changing the Class of an Instance::
* Introspection::
* Miscellaneous Functions::
@end menu

@node Introductory Remarks
@subsection Introductory Remarks

GOOPS is an object-oriented programming system based on a ``metaobject
protocol'' derived from the ones used in CLOS (the Common Lisp Object
System), tiny-clos (a small Scheme implementation of a subset of CLOS
functionality) and STKlos.

GOOPS can be used by application authors at a basic level without any
need to understand what the metaobject protocol (aka ``MOP'') is and how
it works.  On the other hand, the MOP underlies even the customizations
that application authors are likely to make use of very quickly --- such
as defining an @code{initialize} method to customize the initialization
of instances of an application-defined class --- and an understanding of
the MOP makes it much easier to explain such customizations in a precise
way.  And in the long run, understanding the MOP is the key both to
understanding GOOPS at a deeper level and to taking full advantage of
GOOPS' power, by customizing the behaviour of GOOPS itself.

Each of the following sections of the reference manual is arranged
such that the most basic usage is introduced first, and then subsequent
subsubsections discuss the related internal functions and metaobject
protocols, finishing with a description of how to customize that area of
functionality.

These introductory remarks continue with a few words about metaobjects
and the MOP.  Readers who do not want to be bothered yet with the MOP
and customization could safely skip this subsubsection on a first reading,
and should correspondingly skip subsequent subsubsections that are
concerned with internals and customization.

In general, this reference manual assumes familiarity with standard
object oriented concepts and terminology.  However, some of the terms
used in GOOPS are less well known, so the Terminology subsubsection
provides definitions for these terms.

@menu
* Metaobjects and the Metaobject Protocol::
* Terminology::
@end menu

@node Metaobjects and the Metaobject Protocol
@subsubsection Metaobjects and the Metaobject Protocol

The conceptual building blocks of GOOPS are classes, slot definitions,
instances, generic functions and methods.  A class is a grouping of
inheritance relations and slot definitions.  An instance is an object
with slots that are allocated following the rules implied by its class's
superclasses and slot definitions.  A generic function is a collection
of methods and rules for determining which of those methods to apply
when the generic function is invoked.  A method is a procedure and a set
of specializers that specify the type of arguments to which the
procedure is applicable.

Of these entities, GOOPS represents classes, generic functions and
methods as ``metaobjects''.  In other words, the values in a GOOPS
program that describe classes, generic functions and methods, are
themselves instances (or ``objects'') of special GOOPS classes that
encapsulate the behaviour, respectively, of classes, generic functions,
and methods.

(The other two entities are slot definitions and instances.  Slot
definitions are not strictly instances, but every slot definition is
associated with a GOOPS class that specifies the behaviour of the slot
as regards accessibility and protection from garbage collection.
Instances are of course objects in the usual sense, and there is no
benefit from thinking of them as metaobjects.)

The ``metaobject protocol'' (aka ``MOP'') is the specification of the
generic functions which determine the behaviour of these metaobjects and
the circumstances in which these generic functions are invoked.

For a concrete example of what this means, consider how GOOPS calculates
the set of slots for a class that is being defined using
@code{define-class}.  The desired set of slots is the union of the new
class's direct slots and the slots of all its superclasses.  But
@code{define-class} itself does not perform this calculation.  Instead,
there is a method of the @code{initialize} generic function that is
specialized for instances of type @code{<class>}, and it is this method
that performs the slot calculation.

@code{initialize} is a generic function which GOOPS calls whenever a new
instance is created, immediately after allocating memory for a new
instance, in order to initialize the new instance's slots.  The sequence
of steps is as follows.

@itemize @bullet
@item
@code{define-class} uses @code{make} to make a new instance of the
@code{<class>}, passing as initialization arguments the superclasses,
slot definitions and class options that were specified in the
@code{define-class} form.

@item
@code{make} allocates memory for the new instance, and then invokes the
@code{initialize} generic function to initialize the new instance's
slots.

@item
The @code{initialize} generic function applies the method that is
specialized for instances of type @code{<class>}, and this method
performs the slot calculation.
@end itemize

In other words, rather than being hardcoded in @code{define-class}, the
behaviour of class definition is encapsulated by generic function
methods that are specialized for the class @code{<class>}.

It is possible to create a new class that inherits from @code{<class>},
which is called a ``metaclass'', and to write a new @code{initialize}
method that is specialized for instances of the new metaclass.  Then, if
the @code{define-class} form includes a @code{#:metaclass} class option
whose value is the new metaclass, the class that is defined by the
@code{define-class} form will be an instance of the new metaclass rather
than of the default @code{<class>}, and will be defined in accordance
with the new @code{initialize} method.  Thus the default slot
calculation, as well as any other aspect of the new class's relationship
with its superclasses, can be modified or overridden.

In a similar way, the behaviour of generic functions can be modified or
overridden by creating a new class that inherits from the standard
generic function class @code{<generic>}, writing appropriate methods
that are specialized to the new class, and creating new generic
functions that are instances of the new class.

The same is true for method metaobjects.  And the same basic mechanism
allows the application class author to write an @code{initialize} method
that is specialized to their application class, to initialize instances
of that class.

Such is the power of the MOP.  Note that @code{initialize} is just one
of a large number of generic functions that can be customized to modify
the behaviour of application objects and classes and of GOOPS itself.
Each subsequent section of the reference manual covers a particular area
of GOOPS functionality, and describes the generic functions that are
relevant for customization of that area.

We conclude this subsubsection by emphasizing a point that may seem
obvious, but contrasts with the corresponding situation in some other
MOP implementations, such as CLOS.  The point is simply that an
identifier which represents a GOOPS class or generic function is a
variable with a first-class value, the value being an instance of class
@code{<class>} or @code{<generic>}.  (In CLOS, on the other hand, a
class identifier is a symbol that indexes the corresponding class
metaobject in a separate namespace for classes.)  This is, of course,
simply an extension of the tendency in Scheme to avoid the unnecessary
use of, on the one hand, syntactic forms that require unevaluated
arguments and, on the other, separate identifier namespaces (e.g. for
class names), but it is worth noting that GOOPS conforms fully to this
Schemely principle.

@node Terminology
@subsubsection Terminology

It is assumed that the reader is already familiar with standard object
orientation concepts such as classes, objects/instances,
inheritance/subclassing, generic functions and methods, encapsulation
and polymorphism.

This section explains some of the less well known concepts and
terminology that GOOPS uses, which are assumed by the following sections
of the reference manual.

@subsubheading Metaclass

A @dfn{metaclass} is the class of an object which represents a GOOPS
class.  Put more succinctly, a metaclass is a class's class.

Most GOOPS classes have the metaclass @code{<class>} and, by default,
any new class that is created using @code{define-class} has the
metaclass @code{<class>}.

But what does this really mean?  To find out, let's look in more detail
at what happens when a new class is created using @code{define-class}:

@example
(define-class <my-class> (<object>) . slots)
@end example

GOOPS actually expands the @code{define-class} form to something like
this

@example
(define <my-class> (class (<object>) . slots))
@end example

and thence to

@example
(define <my-class>
  (make <class> #:supers (list <object>) #:slots slots))
@end example

In other words, the value of @code{<my-class>} is in fact an instance of
the class @code{<class>} with slot values specifying the superclasses
and slot definitions for the class @code{<my-class>}.  (@code{#:supers}
and @code{#:slots} are initialization keywords for the @code{dsupers}
and @code{dslots} slots of the @code{<class>} class.)

In order to take advantage of the full power of the GOOPS metaobject
protocol (@pxref{MOP Specification}), it is sometimes desirable to
create a new class with a metaclass other than the default
@code{<class>}.  This is done by writing:

@example
(define-class <my-class2> (<object>)
   slot @dots{}
   #:metaclass <my-metaclass>)
@end example

GOOPS expands this to something like:

@example
(define <my-class2>
  (make <my-metaclass> #:supers (list <object>) #:slots slots))
@end example

In this case, the value of @code{<my-class2>} is an instance of the more
specialized class @code{<my-metaclass>}.  Note that
@code{<my-metaclass>} itself must previously have been defined as a
subclass of @code{<class>}.  For a full discussion of when and how it is
useful to define new metaclasses, see @ref{MOP Specification}.

Now let's make an instance of @code{<my-class2>}:

@example
(define my-object (make <my-class2> ...))
@end example

All of the following statements are correct expressions of the
relationships between @code{my-object}, @code{<my-class2>},
@code{<my-metaclass>} and @code{<class>}.

@itemize @bullet
@item
@code{my-object} is an instance of the class @code{<my-class2>}.

@item
@code{<my-class2>} is an instance of the class @code{<my-metaclass>}.

@item
@code{<my-metaclass>} is an instance of the class @code{<class>}.

@item
The class of @code{my-object} is @code{<my-class2>}.

@item
The metaclass of @code{my-object} is @code{<my-metaclass>}.

@item
The class of @code{<my-class2>} is @code{<my-metaclass>}.

@item
The metaclass of @code{<my-class2>} is @code{<class>}.

@item
The class of @code{<my-metaclass>} is @code{<class>}.

@item
The metaclass of @code{<my-metaclass>} is @code{<class>}.

@item
@code{<my-class2>} is not a metaclass, since it is does not inherit from
@code{<class>}.

@item
@code{<my-metaclass>} is a metaclass, since it inherits from
@code{<class>}.
@end itemize

@subsubheading Class Precedence List

The @dfn{class precedence list} of a class is the list of all direct and
indirect superclasses of that class, including the class itself.

In the absence of multiple inheritance, the class precedence list is
ordered straightforwardly, beginning with the class itself and ending
with @code{<top>}.

For example, given this inheritance hierarchy:

@example
(define-class <invertebrate> (<object>) @dots{})
(define-class <echinoderm> (<invertebrate>) @dots{})
(define-class <starfish> (<echinoderm>) @dots{})
@end example

the class precedence list of <starfish> would be

@example
(<starfish> <echinoderm> <invertebrate> <object> <top>)
@end example

With multiple inheritance, the algorithm is a little more complicated.
A full description is provided by the GOOPS Tutorial: see @ref{Class
precedence list}.

``Class precedence list'' is often abbreviated, in documentation and
Scheme variable names, to @dfn{cpl}.

@subsubheading Accessor

An @dfn{accessor} is a generic function with both reference and setter
methods.

@example
(define-accessor perimeter)
@end example

Reference methods for an accessor are defined in the same way as generic
function methods.

@example
(define-method (perimeter (s <square>))
  (* 4 (side-length s)))
@end example

Setter methods for an accessor are defined by specifying ``(setter
<accessor-name>)'' as the first parameter of the @code{define-method}
call.

@example
(define-method ((setter perimeter) (s <square>) (n <number>))
  (set! (side-length s) (/ n 4)))
@end example

Once an appropriate setter method has been defined in this way, it can
be invoked using the generalized @code{set!} syntax, as in:

@example
(set! (perimeter s1) 18.3)
@end example

@node Defining New Classes
@subsection Defining New Classes

[ *fixme* Somewhere in this manual there needs to be an introductory
discussion about GOOPS classes, generic functions and methods, covering

@itemize @bullet
@item
how classes encapsulate related items of data in @dfn{slots}

@item
why it is that, unlike in C++ and Java, a class does not encapsulate the
methods that act upon the class (at least not in the C++/Java sense)

@item
how generic functions provide a more general solution that provides for
dispatch on all argument types, and avoids idiosyncracies like C++'s
friend classes

@item
how encapsulation in the sense of data- and code-hiding, or of
distinguishing interface from implementation, is treated in Guile as an
orthogonal concept to object orientation, and is the responsibility of
the module system.
@end itemize

Some of this is covered in the Tutorial chapter, in @ref{Generic
functions and methods} - perhaps the best solution would be to expand
the discussion there. ]

@menu
* Basic Class Definition::
* Class Options::
* Slot Options::
* Class Definition Internals::
* Customizing Class Definition::
* STKlos Compatibility::
@end menu

@node Basic Class Definition
@subsubsection Basic Class Definition

New classes are defined using the @code{define-class} syntax, with
arguments that specify the classes that the new class should inherit
from, the direct slots of the new class, and any required class options.

@deffn syntax define-class name (super @dots{}) slot-definition @dots{} . options
Define a class called @var{name} that inherits from @var{super}s, with
direct slots defined by @var{slot-definition}s and class options
@var{options}.  The newly created class is bound to the variable name
@var{name} in the current environment.

Each @var{slot-definition} is either a symbol that names the slot or a
list,

@example
(@var{slot-name-symbol} . @var{slot-options})
@end example

where @var{slot-name-symbol} is a symbol and @var{slot-options} is a
list with an even number of elements.  The even-numbered elements of
@var{slot-options} (counting from zero) are slot option keywords; the
odd-numbered elements are the corresponding values for those keywords.

@var{options} is a similarly structured list containing class option
keywords and corresponding values.
@end deffn

The standard GOOPS class and slot options are described in the following
subsubsections: see @ref{Class Options} and @ref{Slot Options}.

Example 1.  Define a class that combines two pre-existing classes by
inheritance but adds no new slots.

@example
(define-class <combined> (<tree> <bicycle>))
@end example

Example 2.  Define a @code{regular-polygon} class with slots for side
length and number of sides that have default values and can be accessed
via the generic functions @code{side-length} and @code{num-sides}.

@example
(define-class <regular-polygon> ()
  (sl #:init-value 1 #:accessor side-length)
  (ns #:init-value 5 #:accessor num-sides))
@end example

Example 3.  Define a class whose behavior (and that of its instances) is
customized via an application-defined metaclass.

@example
(define-class <tcpip-fsm> ()
  (s #:init-value #f #:accessor state)
  ...
  #:metaclass <finite-state-class>)
@end example

@node Class Options
@subsubsection Class Options

@deffn {class option} #:metaclass metaclass
The @code{#:metaclass} class option specifies the metaclass of the class
being defined.  @var{metaclass} must be a class that inherits from
@code{<class>}.  For an introduction to the use of metaclasses, see
@ref{Metaobjects and the Metaobject Protocol} and @ref{Terminology}.

If the @code{#:metaclass} option is absent, GOOPS reuses or constructs a
metaclass for the new class by calling @code{ensure-metaclass}
(@pxref{Class Definition Internals,, ensure-metaclass}).
@end deffn

@deffn {class option} #:name name
The @code{#:name} class option specifies the new class's name.  This
name is used to identify the class whenever related objects - the class
itself, its instances and its subclasses - are printed.

If the @code{#:name} option is absent, GOOPS uses the first argument to
@code{define-class} as the class name.
@end deffn

@deffn {class option} #:environment environment
*fixme* Not sure about this one, but I think that the
@code{#:environment} option specifies the environment in which the
class's getters and setters are computed and evaluated.

If the @code{#:environment} option is not specified, the class's
environment defaults to the top-level environment in which the
@code{define-class} form appears.
@end deffn

@node Slot Options
@subsubsection Slot Options

@deffn {slot option} #:allocation allocation
The @code{#:allocation} option tells GOOPS how to allocate storage for
the slot.  Possible values for @var{allocation} are

@itemize @bullet
@item @code{#:instance}

Indicates that GOOPS should create separate storage for this slot in
each new instance of the containing class (and its subclasses).

@item @code{#:class}

Indicates that GOOPS should create storage for this slot that is shared
by all instances of the containing class (and its subclasses).  In other
words, a slot in class @var{C} with allocation @code{#:class} is shared
by all @var{instance}s for which @code{(is-a? @var{instance} @var{c})}.

@item @code{#:each-subclass}

Indicates that GOOPS should create storage for this slot that is shared
by all @emph{direct} instances of the containing class, and that
whenever a subclass of the containing class is defined, GOOPS should
create a new storage for the slot that is shared by all @emph{direct}
instances of the subclass.  In other words, a slot with allocation
@code{#:each-subclass} is shared by all instances with the same
@code{class-of}.

@item @code{#:virtual}

Indicates that GOOPS should not allocate storage for this slot.  The
slot definition must also include the @code{#:slot-ref} and
@code{#:slot-set!} options to specify how to reference and set the value
for this slot.
@end itemize

The default value is @code{#:instance}.

Slot allocation options are processed when defining a new class by the
generic function @code{compute-get-n-set}, which is specialized by the
class's metaclass.  Hence new types of slot allocation can be
implemented by defining a new metaclass and a method for
@code{compute-get-n-set} that is specialized for the new metaclass.  For
an example of how to do this, see @ref{Customizing Class Definition}.
@end deffn

@deffn {slot option} #:slot-ref getter
@deffnx {slot option} #:slot-set! setter
The @code{#:slot-ref} and @code{#:slot-set!} options must be specified
if the slot allocation is @code{#:virtual}, and are ignored otherwise.

@var{getter} should be a closure taking a single @var{instance} parameter
that returns the current slot value.  @var{setter} should be a closure
taking two parameters - @var{instance} and @var{new-val} - that sets the
slot value to @var{new-val}.
@end deffn

@deffn {slot option} #:getter getter
@deffnx {slot option} #:setter setter
@deffnx {slot option} #:accessor accessor
These options, if present, tell GOOPS to create generic function and
method definitions that can be used to get and set the slot value more
conveniently than by using @code{slot-ref} and @code{slot-set!}.

@var{getter} specifies a generic function to which GOOPS will add a
method for getting the slot value.  @var{setter} specifies a generic
function to which GOOPS will add a method for setting the slot value.
@var{accessor} specifies an accessor to which GOOPS will add methods for
both getting and setting the slot value.

So if a class includes a slot definition like this:

@example
(c #:getter get-count #:setter set-count #:accessor count)
@end example

GOOPS defines generic function methods such that the slot value can be
referenced using either the getter or the accessor -

@example
(let ((current-count (get-count obj))) @dots{})
(let ((current-count (count obj))) @dots{})
@end example

- and set using either the setter or the accessor -

@example
(set-count obj (+ 1 current-count))
(set! (count obj) (+ 1 current-count))
@end example

Note that

@itemize @bullet
@item
with an accessor, the slot value is set using the generalized
@code{set!} syntax

@item
in practice, it is unusual for a slot to use all three of these options:
read-only, write-only and read-write slots would typically use only
@code{#:getter}, @code{#:setter} and @code{#:accessor} options
respectively.
@end itemize

If the specified names are already bound in the top-level environment to
values that cannot be upgraded to generic functions, those values are
overwritten during evaluation of the @code{define-class} that contains
the slot definition.  For details, see @ref{Generic Function Internals,,
ensure-generic}.
@end deffn

@deffn {slot option} #:init-value init-value
@deffnx {slot option} #:init-form init-form
@deffnx {slot option} #:init-thunk init-thunk
@deffnx {slot option} #:init-keyword init-keyword
These options provide various ways to specify how to initialize the
slot's value at instance creation time.  @var{init-value} is a fixed
value (shared across all new instances of the class).
@var{init-thunk} is a procedure of no arguments that is called
when a new instance is created and should return the desired initial
slot value.  @var{init-form} is an unevaluated expression that gets
evaluated when a new instance is created and should return the desired
initial slot value.  @var{init-keyword} is a keyword that can be used
to pass an initial slot value to @code{make} when creating a new
instance.

Note that, since an @code{init-value} value is shared across all
instances of a class, you should only use it when the initial value is
an immutable value, like a constant.  If you want to initialize a slot
with a fresh, independently mutable value, you should use
@code{init-thunk} or @code{init-form} instead.  Consider the following
example.

@example
(define-class <chbouib> ()
  (hashtab #:init-value (make-hash-table)))
@end example

@noindent
Here only one hash table is created and all instances of
@code{<chbouib>} have their @code{hashtab} slot refer to it.  In order
to have each instance of @code{<chbouib>} refer to a new hash table, you
should instead write:

@example
(define-class <chbouib> ()
  (hashtab #:init-thunk make-hash-table))
@end example

@noindent
or:

@example
(define-class <chbouib> ()
  (hashtab #:init-form (make-hash-table)))
@end example

If more than one of these options is specified for the same slot, the
order of precedence, highest first is

@itemize @bullet
@item
@code{#:init-keyword}, if @var{init-keyword} is present in the options
passed to @code{make}

@item
@code{#:init-thunk}, @code{#:init-form} or @code{#:init-value}.
@end itemize

If the slot definition contains more than one initialization option of
the same precedence, the later ones are ignored.  If a slot is not
initialized at all, its value is unbound.

In general, slots that are shared between more than one instance are
only initialized at new instance creation time if the slot value is
unbound at that time.  However, if the new instance creation specifies
a valid init keyword and value for a shared slot, the slot is
re-initialized regardless of its previous value.

Note, however, that the power of GOOPS' metaobject protocol means that
everything written here may be customized or overridden for particular
classes!  The slot initializations described here are performed by the least
specialized method of the generic function @code{initialize}, whose
signature is

@example
(define-method (initialize (object <object>) initargs) ...)
@end example

The initialization of instances of any given class can be customized by
defining a @code{initialize} method that is specialized for that class,
and the author of the specialized method may decide to call
@code{next-method} - which will result in a call to the next less
specialized @code{initialize} method - at any point within the
specialized code, or maybe not at all.  In general, therefore, the
initialization mechanisms described here may be modified or overridden by
more specialized code, or may not be supported at all for particular
classes.
@end deffn

@node Class Definition Internals
@subsubsection Class Definition Internals

Implementation notes: @code{define-class} expands to an expression which

@itemize @bullet
@item
checks that it is being evaluated only at top level

@item
defines any accessors that are implied by the @var{slot-definition}s

@item
uses @code{class} to create the new class (@pxref{Class Definition
Internals,, class})

@item
checks for a previous class definition for @var{name} and, if found,
handles the redefinition by invoking @code{class-redefinition}
(@pxref{Redefining a Class}).
@end itemize

@deffn syntax class name (super @dots{}) slot-definition @dots{} . options
Return a newly created class that inherits from @var{super}s, with
direct slots defined by @var{slot-definition}s and class options
@var{options}.  For the format of @var{slot-definition}s and
@var{options}, see @ref{Basic Class Definition,, define-class}.
@end deffn

Implementation notes: @code{class} expands to an expression which

@itemize @bullet
@item
processes the class and slot definition options to check that they are
well-formed, to convert the @code{#:init-form} option to an
@code{#:init-thunk} option, to supply a default environment parameter
(the current top-level environment) and to evaluate all the bits that
need to be evaluated

@item
calls @code{make-class} to create the class with the processed and
evaluated parameters.
@end itemize

@deffn procedure make-class supers slots . options
Return a newly created class that inherits from @var{supers}, with
direct slots defined by @var{slots} and class options @var{options}.
For the format of @var{slots} and @var{options}, see @ref{Basic Class
Definition,, define-class}, except note that for @code{make-class},
@var{slots} and @var{options} are separate list parameters: @var{slots}
here is a list of slot definitions.
@end deffn

Implementation notes: @code{make-class}

@itemize @bullet
@item
adds @code{<object>} to the @var{supers} list if @var{supers} is empty
or if none of the classes in @var{supers} have @code{<object>} in their
class precedence list

@item
defaults the @code{#:environment}, @code{#:name} and @code{#:metaclass}
options, if they are not specified by @var{options}, to the current
top-level environment, the unbound value, and @code{(ensure-metaclass
@var{supers})} respectively (@pxref{Class Definition Internals,,
ensure-metaclass})

@item
checks for duplicate classes in @var{supers} and duplicate slot names in
@var{slots}, and signals an error if there are any duplicates

@item
calls @code{make}, passing the metaclass as the first parameter and all
other parameters as option keywords with values.
@end itemize

@deffn procedure ensure-metaclass supers env
Return a metaclass suitable for a class that inherits from the list of
classes in @var{supers}.  The returned metaclass is the union by
inheritance of the metaclasses of the classes in @var{supers}.

In the simplest case, where all the @var{supers} are straightforward
classes with metaclass @code{<class>}, the returned metaclass is just
@code{<class>}.

For a more complex example, suppose that @var{supers} contained one
class with metaclass @code{<operator-class>} and one with metaclass
@code{<foreign-object-class>}.  Then the returned metaclass would be a
class that inherits from both @code{<operator-class>} and
@code{<foreign-object-class>}.

If @var{supers} is the empty list, @code{ensure-metaclass} returns the
default GOOPS metaclass @code{<class>}.

GOOPS keeps a list of the metaclasses created by
@code{ensure-metaclass}, so that each required type of metaclass only
has to be created once.

The @code{env} parameter is ignored.
@end deffn

@deffn procedure ensure-metaclass-with-supers meta-supers
@code{ensure-metaclass-with-supers} is an internal procedure used by
@code{ensure-metaclass} (@pxref{Class Definition Internals,,
ensure-metaclass}).  It returns a metaclass that is the union by
inheritance of the metaclasses in @var{meta-supers}.
@end deffn

The internals of @code{make}, which is ultimately used to create the new
class object, are described in @ref{Customizing Instance Creation},
which covers the creation and initialization of instances in general.

@node Customizing Class Definition
@subsubsection Customizing Class Definition

During the initialization of a new class, GOOPS calls a number of generic
functions with the newly allocated class instance as the first
argument.  Specifically, GOOPS calls the generic function

@itemize @bullet
@item
(initialize @var{class} @dots{})
@end itemize

where @var{class} is the newly allocated class instance, and the default
@code{initialize} method for arguments of type @code{<class>} calls the
generic functions

@itemize @bullet
@item
(compute-cpl @var{class})

@item
(compute-slots @var{class})

@item
(compute-get-n-set @var{class} @var{slot-def}), for each of the slot
definitions returned by @code{compute-slots}

@item
(compute-getter-method @var{class} @var{slot-def}), for each of the
slot definitions returned by @code{compute-slots} that includes a
@code{#:getter} or @code{#:accessor} slot option

@item
(compute-setter-method @var{class} @var{slot-def}), for each of the
slot definitions returned by @code{compute-slots} that includes a
@code{#:setter} or @code{#:accessor} slot option.
@end itemize

If the metaclass of the new class is something more specialized than the
default @code{<class>}, then the type of @var{class} in the calls above
is more specialized than @code{<class>}, and hence it becomes possible
to define generic function methods, specialized for the new class's
metaclass, that can modify or override the default behaviour of
@code{initialize}, @code{compute-cpl} or @code{compute-get-n-set}.

@code{compute-cpl} computes the class precedence list (``CPL'') for the
new class (@pxref{Class precedence list}), and returns it as a list of
class objects.  The CPL is important because it defines a superclass
ordering that is used, when a generic function is invoked upon an
instance of the class, to decide which of the available generic function
methods is the most specific.  Hence @code{compute-cpl} could be
customized in order to modify the CPL ordering algorithm for all classes
with a special metaclass.

The default CPL algorithm is encapsulated by the @code{compute-std-cpl}
procedure, which is in turn called by the default @code{compute-cpl}
method.

@deffn procedure compute-std-cpl class
Compute and return the class precedence list for @var{class} according
to the algorithm described in @ref{Class precedence list}.
@end deffn

@code{compute-slots} computes and returns a list of all slot definitions
for the new class.  By default, this list includes the direct slot
definitions from the @code{define-class} form, plus the slot definitions
that are inherited from the new class's superclasses.  The default
@code{compute-slots} method uses the CPL computed by @code{compute-cpl}
to calculate this union of slot definitions, with the rule that slots
inherited from superclasses are shadowed by direct slots with the same
name.  One possible reason for customizing @code{compute-slots} would be
to implement an alternative resolution strategy for slot name conflicts.

@code{compute-get-n-set} computes the low-level closures that will be
used to get and set the value of a particular slot, and returns them in
a list with two elements.

The closures returned depend on how storage for that slot is allocated.
The standard @code{compute-get-n-set} method, specialized for classes of
type @code{<class>}, handles the standard GOOPS values for the
@code{#:allocation} slot option (@pxref{Slot Options,, allocation}).  By
defining a new @code{compute-get-n-set} method for a more specialized
metaclass, it is possible to support new types of slot allocation.

Suppose you wanted to create a large number of instances of some class
with a slot that should be shared between some but not all instances of
that class - say every 10 instances should share the same slot storage.
The following example shows how to implement and use a new type of slot
allocation to do this.

@example
(define-class <batched-allocation-metaclass> (<class>))

(let ((batch-allocation-count 0)
      (batch-get-n-set #f))
  (define-method (compute-get-n-set
                     (class <batched-allocation-metaclass>) s)
    (case (slot-definition-allocation s)
      ((#:batched)
       ;; If we've already used the same slot storage for 10 instances,
       ;; reset variables.
       (if (= batch-allocation-count 10)
           (begin
             (set! batch-allocation-count 0)
             (set! batch-get-n-set #f)))
       ;; If we don't have a current pair of get and set closures,
       ;; create one.  make-closure-variable returns a pair of closures
       ;; around a single Scheme variable - see goops.scm for details.
       (or batch-get-n-set
           (set! batch-get-n-set (make-closure-variable)))
       ;; Increment the batch allocation count.
       (set! batch-allocation-count (+ batch-allocation-count 1))
       batch-get-n-set)

      ;; Call next-method to handle standard allocation types.
      (else (next-method)))))

(define-class <class-using-batched-slot> ()
  ...
  (c #:allocation #:batched)
  ...
  #:metaclass <batched-allocation-metaclass>)
@end example

The usage of @code{compute-getter-method} and @code{compute-setter-method}
is described in @ref{MOP Specification}.

@code{compute-cpl} and @code{compute-get-n-set} are called by the
standard @code{initialize} method for classes whose metaclass is
@code{<class>}.  But @code{initialize} itself can also be modified, by
defining an @code{initialize} method specialized to the new class's
metaclass.  Such a method could complete override the standard
behaviour, by not calling @code{(next-method)} at all, but more
typically it would perform additional class initialization steps before
and/or after calling @code{(next-method)} for the standard behaviour.

@node STKlos Compatibility
@subsubsection STKlos Compatibility

If the STKlos compatibility module is loaded, @code{define-class} is
overwritten by a STKlos-specific definition; the standard GOOPS
definition of @code{define-class} remains available in
@code{standard-define-class}.

@deffn syntax standard-define-class name (super @dots{}) slot-definition @dots{} . options
@code{standard-define-class} is equivalent to the standard GOOPS
@code{define-class}.
@end deffn

@node Creating Instances
@subsection Creating Instances

@menu
* Basic Instance Creation::
* Customizing Instance Creation::
@end menu

@node Basic Instance Creation
@subsubsection Basic Instance Creation

To create a new instance of any GOOPS class, use the generic function
@code{make} or @code{make-instance}, passing the required class and any
appropriate instance initialization arguments as keyword and value
pairs.  Note that @code{make} and @code{make-instances} are aliases for
each other - their behaviour is identical.

@deffn generic make
@deffnx method make (class <class>) . initargs
Create and return a new instance of class @var{class}, initialized using
@var{initargs}.

In theory, @var{initargs} can have any structure that is understood by
whatever methods get applied when the @code{initialize} generic function
is applied to the newly allocated instance.

In practice, specialized @code{initialize} methods would normally call
@code{(next-method)}, and so eventually the standard GOOPS
@code{initialize} methods are applied.  These methods expect
@var{initargs} to be a list with an even number of elements, where
even-numbered elements (counting from zero) are keywords and
odd-numbered elements are the corresponding values.

GOOPS processes initialization argument keywords automatically for slots
whose definition includes the @code{#:init-keyword} option (@pxref{Slot
Options,, init-keyword}).  Other keyword value pairs can only be
processed by an @code{initialize} method that is specialized for the new
instance's class.  Any unprocessed keyword value pairs are ignored.
@end deffn

@deffn generic make-instance
@deffnx method make-instance (class <class>) . initargs
@code{make-instance} is an alias for @code{make}.
@end deffn

@node Customizing Instance Creation
@subsubsection Customizing Instance Creation

@code{make} itself is a generic function.  Hence the @code{make}
invocation itself can be customized in the case where the new instance's
metaclass is more specialized than the default @code{<class>}, by
defining a @code{make} method that is specialized to that metaclass.

Normally, however, the method for classes with metaclass @code{<class>}
will be applied.  This method calls two generic functions:

@itemize @bullet
@item
(allocate-instance @var{class} . @var{initargs})

@item
(initialize @var{instance} . @var{initargs})
@end itemize

@code{allocate-instance} allocates storage for and returns the new
instance, uninitialized.  You might customize @code{allocate-instance},
for example, if you wanted to provide a GOOPS wrapper around some other
object programming system.

To do this, you would create a specialized metaclass, which would act as
the metaclass for all classes and instances from the other system.  Then
define an @code{allocate-instance} method, specialized to that
metaclass, which calls a Guile primitive C function, which in turn
allocates the new instance using the interface of the other object
system.

In this case, for a complete system, you would also need to customize a
number of other generic functions like @code{make} and
@code{initialize}, so that GOOPS knows how to make classes from the
other system, access instance slots, and so on.

@code{initialize} initializes the instance that is returned by
@code{allocate-instance}.  The standard GOOPS methods perform
initializations appropriate to the instance class.

@itemize @bullet
@item
At the least specialized level, the method for instances of type
@code{<object>} performs internal GOOPS instance initialization, and
initializes the instance's slots according to the slot definitions and
any slot initialization keywords that appear in @var{initargs}.

@item
The method for instances of type @code{<class>} calls
@code{(next-method)}, then performs the class initializations described
in @ref{Customizing Class Definition}.

@item
and so on for generic functions, method, operator classes @dots{}
@end itemize

Similarly, you can customize the initialization of instances of any
application-defined class by defining an @code{initialize} method
specialized to that class.

Imagine a class whose instances' slots need to be initialized at
instance creation time by querying a database.  Although it might be
possible to achieve this a combination of @code{#:init-thunk} keywords
and closures in the slot definitions, it is neater to write an
@code{initialize} method for the class that queries the database once
and initializes all the dependent slot values according to the results.

@node Accessing Slots
@subsection Accessing Slots

The definition of a slot contains at the very least a slot name, and may
also contain various slot options, including getter, setter and/or
accessor functions for the slot.

It is always possible to access slots by name, using the various
``slot-ref'' and ``slot-set!'' procedures described in the following
subsubsections.  For example,

@example
(define-class <my-class> ()      ;; Define a class with slots
  (count #:init-value 0)         ;; named "count" and "cache".
  (cache #:init-value '())
  @dots{})

(define inst (make <my-class>))  ;; Make an instance of this class.

(slot-set! inst 'count 5)        ;; Set the value of the "count"
                                 ;; slot to 5.

(slot-set! inst 'cache           ;; Modify the value of the
  (cons (cons "^it" "It")        ;; "cache" slot.
        (slot-ref inst 'cache)))
@end example

If a slot definition includes a getter, setter or accessor function,
these can be used instead of @code{slot-ref} and @code{slot-set!} to
access the slot.

@example
(define-class <adv-class> ()     ;; Define a new class whose slots
  (count #:setter set-count)     ;; use a getter, a setter and
  (cache #:accessor cache)       ;; an accessor.
  (csize #:getter cache-size)
  @dots{})

(define inst (make <adv-class>)) ;; Make an instance of this class.

(set-count inst 5)               ;; Set the value of the "count"
                                 ;; slot to 5.

(set! (cache inst)               ;; Modify the value of the
  (cons (cons "^it" "It")        ;; "cache" slot.
        (cache inst)))

(let ((size (cache-size inst)))  ;; Get the value of the "csize"
  @dots{})                           ;; slot.
@end example

Whichever of these methods is used to access slots, GOOPS always calls
the low-level @dfn{getter} and @dfn{setter} closures for the slot to get
and set its value.  These closures make sure that the slot behaves
according to the @code{#:allocation} type that was specified in the slot
definition (@pxref{Slot Options,, allocation}).  (For more about these
closures, see @ref{Customizing Class Definition,, compute-get-n-set}.)

@menu
* Instance Slots::
* Class Slots::
* Handling Slot Access Errors::
@end menu

@node Instance Slots
@subsubsection Instance Slots

Any slot, regardless of its allocation, can be queried, referenced and
set using the following four primitive procedures.

@deffn {primitive procedure} slot-exists? obj slot-name
Return @code{#t} if @var{obj} has a slot with name @var{slot-name},
otherwise @code{#f}.
@end deffn

@deffn {primitive procedure} slot-bound? obj slot-name
Return @code{#t} if the slot named @var{slot-name} in @var{obj} has a
value, otherwise @code{#f}.

@code{slot-bound?} calls the generic function @code{slot-missing} if
@var{obj} does not have a slot called @var{slot-name} (@pxref{Handling
Slot Access Errors, slot-missing}).
@end deffn

@deffn {primitive procedure} slot-ref obj slot-name
Return the value of the slot named @var{slot-name} in @var{obj}.

@code{slot-ref} calls the generic function @code{slot-missing} if
@var{obj} does not have a slot called @var{slot-name} (@pxref{Handling
Slot Access Errors, slot-missing}).

@code{slot-ref} calls the generic function @code{slot-unbound} if the
named slot in @var{obj} does not have a value (@pxref{Handling Slot
Access Errors, slot-unbound}).
@end deffn

@deffn {primitive procedure} slot-set! obj slot-name value
Set the value of the slot named @var{slot-name} in @var{obj} to @var{value}.

@code{slot-set!} calls the generic function @code{slot-missing} if
@var{obj} does not have a slot called @var{slot-name} (@pxref{Handling
Slot Access Errors, slot-missing}).
@end deffn

GOOPS stores information about slots in class metaobjects.  Internally,
all of these procedures work by looking up the slot definition for the
slot named @var{slot-name} in the class metaobject for @code{(class-of
@var{obj})}, and then using the slot definition's ``getter'' and
``setter'' closures to get and set the slot value.

The next four procedures differ from the previous ones in that they take
the class metaobject as an explicit argument, rather than assuming
@code{(class-of @var{obj})}.  Therefore they allow you to apply the
``getter'' and ``setter'' closures of a slot definition in one class to
an instance of a different class.

[ *fixme* I have no idea why this is useful!  Perhaps when a slot in
@code{(class-of @var{obj})} shadows a slot with the same name in one of
its superclasses?  There should be an enlightening example here. ]

@deffn {primitive procedure} slot-exists-using-class? class obj slot-name
Return @code{#t} if the class metaobject @var{class} has a slot
definition for a slot with name @var{slot-name}, otherwise @code{#f}.
@end deffn

@deffn {primitive procedure} slot-bound-using-class? class obj slot-name
Return @code{#t} if applying @code{slot-ref-using-class} to the same
arguments would call the generic function @code{slot-unbound}, otherwise
@code{#f}.

@code{slot-bound-using-class?} calls the generic function
@code{slot-missing} if @var{class} does not have a slot definition for a
slot called @var{slot-name} (@pxref{Handling Slot Access Errors,
slot-missing}).
@end deffn

@deffn {primitive procedure} slot-ref-using-class class obj slot-name
Apply the ``getter'' closure for the slot named @var{slot-name} in
@var{class} to @var{obj}, and return its result.

@code{slot-ref-using-class} calls the generic function
@code{slot-missing} if @var{class} does not have a slot definition for a
slot called @var{slot-name} (@pxref{Handling Slot Access Errors,
slot-missing}).

@code{slot-ref-using-class} calls the generic function
@code{slot-unbound} if the application of the ``getter'' closure to
@var{obj} returns an unbound value (@pxref{Handling Slot Access Errors,
slot-unbound}).
@end deffn

@deffn {primitive procedure} slot-set-using-class! class obj slot-name value
Apply the ``setter'' closure for the slot named @var{slot-name} in
@var{class} to @var{obj} and @var{value}.

@code{slot-set-using-class!} calls the generic function
@code{slot-missing} if @var{class} does not have a slot definition for a
slot called @var{slot-name} (@pxref{Handling Slot Access Errors,
slot-missing}).
@end deffn

@node Class Slots
@subsubsection Class Slots

Slots whose allocation is per-class rather than per-instance can be
referenced and set without needing to specify any particular instance.

@deffn procedure class-slot-ref class slot-name
Return the value of the slot named @var{slot-name} in class @var{class}.
The named slot must have @code{#:class} or @code{#:each-subclass}
allocation (@pxref{Slot Options,, allocation}).

If there is no such slot with @code{#:class} or @code{#:each-subclass}
allocation, @code{class-slot-ref} calls the @code{slot-missing} generic
function with arguments @var{class} and @var{slot-name}.  Otherwise, if
the slot value is unbound, @code{class-slot-ref} calls the
@code{slot-missing} generic function, with the same arguments.
@end deffn

@deffn procedure class-slot-set! class slot-name value
Set the value of the slot named @var{slot-name} in class @var{class} to
@var{value}.  The named slot must have @code{#:class} or
@code{#:each-subclass} allocation (@pxref{Slot Options,, allocation}).

If there is no such slot with @code{#:class} or @code{#:each-subclass}
allocation, @code{class-slot-ref} calls the @code{slot-missing} generic
function with arguments @var{class} and @var{slot-name}.
@end deffn

@node Handling Slot Access Errors
@subsubsection Handling Slot Access Errors

GOOPS calls one of the following generic functions when a ``slot-ref''
or ``slot-set!'' call specifies a non-existent slot name, or tries to
reference a slot whose value is unbound.

@deffn generic slot-missing
@deffnx method slot-missing (class <class>) slot-name
@deffnx method slot-missing (class <class>) (object <object>) slot-name
@deffnx method slot-missing (class <class>) (object <object>) slot-name value
When an application attempts to reference or set a class or instance
slot by name, and the slot name is invalid for the specified @var{class}
or @var{object}, GOOPS calls the @code{slot-missing} generic function.

The default methods all call @code{goops-error} with an appropriate
message.
@end deffn

@deffn generic slot-unbound
@deffnx method slot-unbound (object <object>)
@deffnx method slot-unbound (class <class>) slot-name
@deffnx method slot-unbound (class <class>) (object <object>) slot-name
When an application attempts to reference a class or instance slot, and
the slot's value is unbound, GOOPS calls the @code{slot-unbound} generic
function.

The default methods all call @code{goops-error} with an appropriate
message.
@end deffn

@node Creating Generic Functions
@subsection Creating Generic Functions

A generic function is a collection of methods, with rules for
determining which of the methods should be applied for any given
invocation of the generic function.

GOOPS represents generic functions as metaobjects of the class
@code{<generic>} (or one of its subclasses).

@menu
* Basic Generic Function Creation::
* Generic Function Internals::
* Extending Guiles Primitives::
@end menu

@node Basic Generic Function Creation
@subsubsection Basic Generic Function Creation

The following forms may be used to bind a variable to a generic
function.  Depending on that variable's pre-existing value, the generic
function may be created empty - with no methods - or it may contain
methods that are inferred from the pre-existing value.

It is not, in general, necessary to use @code{define-generic} or
@code{define-accessor} before defining methods for the generic function
using @code{define-method}, since @code{define-method} will
automatically interpolate a @code{define-generic} call, or upgrade an
existing generic to an accessor, if that is implied by the
@code{define-method} call.  Note in particular that,
if the specified variable already has a @emph{generic function} value,
@code{define-generic} and @code{define-accessor} will @emph{discard} it!
Obviously it is application-dependent whether this is desirable or not.

If, for example, you wanted to extend @code{+} for a class representing
a new numerical type, you probably want to inherit any existing methods
for @code{+} and so should not use @code{define-generic}.  If, on the
other hand, you do not want to risk inheriting methods whose behaviour
might surprise you, you can use @code{define-generic} or
@code{define-accessor} to wipe the slate clean.

@deffn syntax define-generic symbol
Create a generic function with name @var{symbol} and bind it to the
variable @var{symbol}.

If the variable @var{symbol} was previously bound to a Scheme procedure
(or procedure-with-setter), the old procedure (and setter) is
incorporated into the new generic function as its default procedure (and
setter).  Any other previous value that was bound to @var{symbol},
including an existing generic function, is overwritten by the new
generic function.
@end deffn

@deffn syntax define-accessor symbol
Create an accessor with name @var{symbol} and bind it to the variable
@var{symbol}.

If the variable @var{symbol} was previously bound to a Scheme procedure
(or procedure-with-setter), the old procedure (and setter) is
incorporated into the new accessor as its default procedure (and
setter).  Any other previous value that was bound to @var{symbol},
including an existing generic function or accessor, is overwritten by
the new definition.
@end deffn

It is sometimes tempting to use GOOPS accessors with short names.  For
example, it is tempting to use the name @code{x} for the x-coordinate
in vector packages.

Assume that we work with a graphical package which needs to use two
independent vector packages for 2D and 3D vectors respectively.  If
both packages export @code{x} we will encounter a name collision.

This can be resolved automagically with the duplicates handler
@code{merge-generics} which gives the module system license to merge
all generic functions sharing a common name:

@smalllisp
(define-module (math 2D-vectors)
  :use-module (oop goops)
  :export (x y ...))
                  
(define-module (math 3D-vectors)
  :use-module (oop goops)
  :export (x y z ...))

(define-module (my-module)
  :use-module (math 2D-vectors)
  :use-module (math 3D-vectors)
  :duplicates merge-generics)
@end smalllisp

The generic function @code{x} in @code{(my-module)} will now share
methods with @code{x} in both imported modules.

There will, in fact, now be three distinct generic functions named
@code{x}: @code{x} in @code{(2D-vectors)}, @code{x} in
@code{(3D-vectors)}, and @code{x} in @code{(my-module)}.  The last
function will be an @code{<extended-generic>}, extending the previous
two functions.

Let's call the imported generic functions the "ancestor functions".
The generic function @code{x} in @code{(my-module)} is, in turn, a
"descendant function" of the imported functions, extending its
ancestors.

For any generic function G, the applicable methods are selected from
the union of the methods of the descendant functions, the methods of G
itself and the methods of the ancestor functions.

This, ancestor functions share methods with their descendants and vice
versa.  This implies that @code{x} in @code{(math 2D-vectors)} will
share the methods of @code{x} in @code{(my-module)} and vice versa,
while @code{x} in @code{(math 2D-vectors)} doesn't share the methods
of @code{x} in @code{(math 3D-vectors)}, thus preserving modularity.

Sharing is dynamic, so that adding new methods to a descendant implies
adding it to the ancestor.

If duplicates checking is desired in the above example, the following
form of the @code{:duplicates} option can be used instead:

@smalllisp
  :duplicates (merge-generics check)
@end smalllisp

@node Generic Function Internals
@subsubsection Generic Function Internals

@code{define-generic} calls @code{ensure-generic} to upgrade a
pre-existing procedure value, or @code{make} with metaclass
@code{<generic>} to create a new generic function.

@code{define-accessor} calls @code{ensure-accessor} to upgrade a
pre-existing procedure value, or @code{make-accessor} to create a new
accessor.

@deffn procedure ensure-generic old-definition [name]
Return a generic function with name @var{name}, if possible by using or
upgrading @var{old-definition}.  If unspecified, @var{name} defaults to
@code{#f}.

If @var{old-definition} is already a generic function, it is returned
unchanged.

If @var{old-definition} is a Scheme procedure or procedure-with-setter,
@code{ensure-generic} returns a new generic function that uses
@var{old-definition} for its default procedure and setter.

Otherwise @code{ensure-generic} returns a new generic function with no
defaults and no methods.
@end deffn

@deffn procedure make-generic [name]
Return a new generic function with name @code{(car @var{name})}.  If
unspecified, @var{name} defaults to @code{#f}.
@end deffn

@code{ensure-generic} calls @code{make} with metaclasses
@code{<generic>} and @code{<generic-with-setter>}, depending on the
previous value of the variable that it is trying to upgrade.

@code{make-generic} is a simple wrapper for @code{make} with metaclass
@code{<generic>}.

@deffn procedure ensure-accessor proc [name]
Return an accessor with name @var{name}, if possible by using or
upgrading @var{proc}.  If unspecified, @var{name} defaults to @code{#f}.

If @var{proc} is already an accessor, it is returned unchanged.

If @var{proc} is a Scheme procedure, procedure-with-setter or generic
function, @code{ensure-accessor} returns an accessor that reuses the
reusable elements of @var{proc}.

Otherwise @code{ensure-accessor} returns a new accessor with no defaults
and no methods.
@end deffn

@deffn procedure make-accessor [name]
Return a new accessor with name @code{(car @var{name})}.  If
unspecified, @var{name} defaults to @code{#f}.
@end deffn

@code{ensure-accessor} calls @code{make} with
metaclass @code{<generic-with-setter>}, as well as calls to
@code{ensure-generic}, @code{make-accessor} and (tail recursively)
@code{ensure-accessor}.

@code{make-accessor} calls @code{make} twice, first
with metaclass @code{<generic>} to create a generic function for the
setter, then with metaclass @code{<generic-with-setter>} to create the
accessor, passing the setter generic function as the value of the
@code{#:setter} keyword.

@node Extending Guiles Primitives
@subsubsection Extending Guile's Primitives

When GOOPS is loaded, many of Guile's primitive procedures can be
extended by giving them a generic function definition that operates
in conjunction with their normal C-coded implementation.  For
primitives that are extended in this way, the result from the user-
or application-level point of view is that the extended primitive
behaves exactly like a generic function with the C-coded implementation
as its default method.

The @code{generic-capability?} predicate should be used to determine
whether a particular primitive is extensible in this way.

@deffn {primitive procedure} generic-capability? primitive
Return @code{#t} if @var{primitive} can be extended by giving it a
generic function definition, otherwise @code{#f}.
@end deffn

Even when a primitive procedure is extensible like this, its generic
function definition is not created until it is needed by a call to
@code{define-method}, or until the application explicitly requests it
by calling @code{enable-primitive-generic!}.

@deffn {primitive procedure} enable-primitive-generic! primitive
Force the creation of a generic function definition for
@var{primitive}.
@end deffn

Once the generic function definition for a primitive has been created,
it can be retrieved using @code{primitive-generic-generic}.

@deffn {primitive procedure} primitive-generic-generic primitive
Return the generic function definition of @var{primitive}.

@code{primitive-generic-generic} raises an error if @var{primitive}
is not a primitive with generic capability, or if its generic capability
has not yet been enabled, whether implicitly (by @code{define-method})
or explicitly (by @code{enable-primitive-generic!}).
@end deffn

Note that the distinction between, on the one hand, primitives with
additional generic function definitions and, on the other hand, generic
functions with a default method, may disappear when GOOPS is fully
integrated into the core of Guile.  Consequently, the
procedures described in this section may disappear as well.

@node Adding Methods to Generic Functions
@subsection Adding Methods to Generic Functions

@menu
* Basic Method Definition::
* Method Definition Internals::
@end menu

@node Basic Method Definition
@subsubsection Basic Method Definition

To add a method to a generic function, use the @code{define-method} form.

@deffn syntax define-method (generic parameter @dots{}) . body
Define a method for the generic function or accessor @var{generic} with
parameters @var{parameter}s and body @var{body}.

@var{generic} is a generic function.  If @var{generic} is a variable
which is not yet bound to a generic function object, the expansion of
@code{define-method} will include a call to @code{define-generic}.  If
@var{generic} is @code{(setter @var{generic-with-setter})}, where
@var{generic-with-setter} is a variable which is not yet bound to a
generic-with-setter object, the expansion will include a call to
@code{define-accessor}.

Each @var{parameter} must be either a symbol or a two-element list
@code{(@var{symbol} @var{class})}.  The symbols refer to variables in
the @var{body} that will be bound to the parameters supplied by the
caller when calling this method.  The @var{class}es, if present,
specify the possible combinations of parameters to which this method
can be applied.

@var{body} is the body of the method definition.
@end deffn

@code{define-method} expressions look a little like normal Scheme
procedure definitions of the form

@example
(define (name formals @dots{}) . body)
@end example

The most important difference is that each formal parameter, apart from the
possible ``rest'' argument, can be qualified by a class name:
@code{@var{formal}} becomes @code{(@var{formal} @var{class})}.  The
meaning of this qualification is that the method being defined
will only be applicable in a particular generic function invocation if
the corresponding argument is an instance of @code{@var{class}} (or one of
its subclasses).  If more than one of the formal parameters is qualified
in this way, then the method will only be applicable if each of the
corresponding arguments is an instance of its respective qualifying class.

Note that unqualified formal parameters act as though they are qualified
by the class @code{<top>}, which GOOPS uses to mean the superclass of
all valid Scheme types, including both primitive types and GOOPS classes.

For example, if a generic function method is defined with
@var{parameter}s @code{((s1 <square>) (n <number>))}, that method is
only applicable to invocations of its generic function that have two
parameters where the first parameter is an instance of the
@code{<square>} class and the second parameter is a number.

If a generic function is invoked with a combination of parameters for which
there is no applicable method, GOOPS raises an error.  For more about
invocation error handling, and generic function invocation in general,
see @ref{Invoking Generic Functions}.

@node Method Definition Internals
@subsubsection Method Definition Internals

@code{define-method}

@itemize @bullet
@item
checks the form of the first parameter, and applies the following steps
to the accessor's setter if it has the @code{(setter @dots{})} form

@item
interpolates a call to @code{define-generic} or @code{define-accessor}
if a generic function is not already defined with the supplied name

@item
calls @code{method} with the @var{parameter}s and @var{body}, to make a
new method instance

@item
calls @code{add-method!} to add this method to the relevant generic
function.
@end itemize

@deffn syntax method (parameter @dots{}) . body
Make a method whose specializers are defined by the classes in
@var{parameter}s and whose procedure definition is constructed from the
@var{parameter} symbols and @var{body} forms.

The @var{parameter} and @var{body} parameters should be as for
@code{define-method} (@pxref{Basic Method Definition,, define-method}).
@end deffn

@code{method}

@itemize @bullet
@item
extracts formals and specializing classes from the @var{parameter}s,
defaulting the class for unspecialized parameters to @code{<top>}

@item
creates a closure using the formals and the @var{body} forms

@item
calls @code{make} with metaclass @code{<method>} and the specializers
and closure using the @code{#:specializers} and @code{#:procedure}
keywords.
@end itemize

@deffn procedure make-method specializers procedure
Make a method using @var{specializers} and @var{procedure}.

@var{specializers} should be a list of classes that specifies the
parameter combinations to which this method will be applicable.

@var{procedure} should be the closure that will applied to the generic
function parameters when this method is invoked.
@end deffn

@code{make-method} is a simple wrapper around @code{make} with metaclass
@code{<method>}.

@deffn generic add-method! target method
Generic function for adding method @var{method} to @var{target}.
@end deffn

@deffn method add-method! (generic <generic>) (method <method>)
Add method @var{method} to the generic function @var{generic}.
@end deffn

@deffn method add-method! (proc <procedure>) (method <method>)
If @var{proc} is a procedure with generic capability (@pxref{Extending
Guiles Primitives,, generic-capability?}), upgrade it to a
primitive generic and add @var{method} to its generic function
definition.
@end deffn

@deffn method add-method! (pg <primitive-generic>) (method <method>)
Add method @var{method} to the generic function definition of @var{pg}.

Implementation: @code{(add-method! (primitive-generic-generic pg) method)}.
@end deffn

@deffn method add-method! (whatever <top>) (method <method>)
Raise an error indicating that @var{whatever} is not a valid generic
function.
@end deffn

@node Invoking Generic Functions
@subsection Invoking Generic Functions

When a variable with a generic function definition appears as the first
element of a list that is being evaluated, the Guile evaluator tries
to apply the generic function to the arguments obtained by evaluating
the remaining elements of the list.  [ *fixme* How do I put this in a
more Schemely and less Lispy way? ]

Usually a generic function contains several method definitions, with
varying degrees of formal parameter specialization (@pxref{Basic
Method Definition,, define-method}).  So it is necessary to sort these
methods by specificity with respect to the supplied arguments, and then
apply the most specific method definition.  Less specific methods
may be applied subsequently if a method that is being applied calls
@code{next-method}.

@menu
* Determining Which Methods to Apply::
* Handling Invocation Errors::
@end menu

@node Determining Which Methods to Apply
@subsubsection Determining Which Methods to Apply

[ *fixme*  Sorry - this is the area of GOOPS that I understand least of
all, so I'm afraid I have to pass on this section.  Would some other
kind person consider filling it in? ]

@deffn generic apply-generic
@deffnx method apply-generic (gf <generic>) args
@end deffn

@deffn generic compute-applicable-methods
@deffnx method compute-applicable-methods (gf <generic>) args
@end deffn

@deffn generic sort-applicable-methods
@deffnx method sort-applicable-methods (gf <generic>) methods args
@end deffn

@deffn generic method-more-specific?
@deffnx method method-more-specific? (m1 <method>) (m2 <method>) args
@end deffn

@deffn generic apply-method
@deffnx method apply-method (gf <generic>) methods build-next args
@end deffn

@deffn generic apply-methods
@deffnx method apply-methods (gf <generic>) (l <list>) args
@end deffn

@node Handling Invocation Errors
@subsubsection Handling Invocation Errors

@deffn generic no-method
@deffnx method no-method (gf <generic>) args
When an application invokes a generic function, and no methods at all
have been defined for that generic function, GOOPS calls the
@code{no-method} generic function.  The default method calls
@code{goops-error} with an appropriate message.
@end deffn

@deffn generic no-applicable-method
@deffnx method no-applicable-method (gf <generic>) args
When an application applies a generic function to a set of arguments,
and no methods have been defined for those argument types, GOOPS calls
the @code{no-applicable-method} generic function.  The default method
calls @code{goops-error} with an appropriate message.
@end deffn

@deffn generic no-next-method
@deffnx method no-next-method (gf <generic>) args
When a generic function method calls @code{(next-method)} to invoke the
next less specialized method for that generic function, and no less
specialized methods have been defined for the current generic function
arguments, GOOPS calls the @code{no-next-method} generic function.  The
default method calls @code{goops-error} with an appropriate message.
@end deffn

@node Redefining a Class
@subsection Redefining a Class

Suppose that a class @code{<my-class>} is defined using @code{define-class}
(@pxref{Basic Class Definition,, define-class}), with slots that have
accessor functions, and that an application has created several instances
of @code{<my-class>} using @code{make} (@pxref{Basic Instance Creation,,
make}).  What then happens if @code{<my-class>} is redefined by calling
@code{define-class} again?

@menu
* Default Class Redefinition Behaviour::
* Customizing Class Redefinition::
@end menu

@node Default Class Redefinition Behaviour
@subsubsection Default Class Redefinition Behaviour

GOOPS' default answer to this question is as follows.

@itemize @bullet
@item
All existing direct instances of @code{<my-class>} are converted to be
instances of the new class.  This is achieved by preserving the values
of slots that exist in both the old and new definitions, and initializing the
values of new slots in the usual way (@pxref{Basic Instance Creation,,
make}).

@item
All existing subclasses of @code{<my-class>} are redefined, as though
the @code{define-class} expressions that defined them were re-evaluated
following the redefinition of @code{<my-class>}, and the class
redefinition process described here is applied recursively to the
redefined subclasses.

@item
Once all of its instances and subclasses have been updated, the class
metaobject previously bound to the variable @code{<my-class>} is no
longer needed and so can be allowed to be garbage collected.
@end itemize

To keep things tidy, GOOPS also needs to do a little housekeeping on
methods that are associated with the redefined class.

@itemize @bullet
@item
Slot accessor methods for slots in the old definition should be removed
from their generic functions.  They will be replaced by accessor methods
for the slots of the new class definition.

@item
Any generic function method that uses the old @code{<my-class>} metaobject
as one of its formal parameter specializers must be updated to refer to
the new @code{<my-class>} metaobject.  (Whenever a new generic function
method is defined, @code{define-method} adds the method to a list stored
in the class metaobject for each class used as a formal parameter
specializer, so it is easy to identify all the methods that must be
updated when a class is redefined.)
@end itemize

If this class redefinition strategy strikes you as rather counter-intuitive,
bear in mind that it is derived from similar behaviour in other object
systems such as CLOS, and that experience in those systems has shown it to be
very useful in practice.

Also bear in mind that, like most of GOOPS' default behaviour, it can
be customized@dots{}

@node Customizing Class Redefinition
@subsubsection Customizing Class Redefinition

When @code{define-class} notices that a class is being redefined,
it constructs the new class metaobject as usual, and then invokes the
@code{class-redefinition} generic function with the old and new classes
as arguments.  Therefore, if the old or new classes have metaclasses
other than the default @code{<class>}, class redefinition behaviour can
be customized by defining a @code{class-redefinition} method that is
specialized for the relevant metaclasses.

@deffn generic class-redefinition
Handle the class redefinition from @var{old-class} to @var{new-class},
and return the new class metaobject that should be bound to the
variable specified by @code{define-class}'s first argument.
@end deffn

@deffn method class-redefinition (old-class <class>) (new-class <class>)
Implements GOOPS' default class redefinition behaviour, as described in
@ref{Default Class Redefinition Behaviour}.  Returns the metaobject
for the new class definition.
@end deffn

An alternative class redefinition strategy could be to leave all
existing instances as instances of the old class, but accepting that the
old class is now ``nameless'', since its name has been taken over by the
new definition.  In this strategy, any existing subclasses could also
be left as they are, on the understanding that they inherit from a nameless
superclass.

This strategy is easily implemented in GOOPS, by defining a new metaclass,
that will be used as the metaclass for all classes to which the strategy
should apply, and then defining a @code{class-redefinition} method that
is specialized for this metaclass:

@example
(define-class <can-be-nameless> (<class>))

(define-method (class-redefinition (old <can-be-nameless>)
                                   (new <class>))
  new)
@end example

When customization can be as easy as this, aren't you glad that GOOPS
implements the far more difficult strategy as its default!

Finally, note that, if @code{class-redefinition} itself is not customized,
the default @code{class-redefinition} method invokes three further
generic functions that could be individually customized:

@itemize @bullet
@item
(remove-class-accessors! @var{old-class})

@item
(update-direct-method! @var{method} @var{old-class} @var{new-class})

@item
(update-direct-subclass! @var{subclass} @var{old-class} @var{new-class})
@end itemize

and the default methods for these generic functions invoke further
generic functions, and so on@dots{}  The detailed protocol for all of these
is described in @ref{MOP Specification}.

@node Changing the Class of an Instance
@subsection Changing the Class of an Instance

You can change the class of an existing instance by invoking the
generic function @code{change-class} with two arguments: the instance
and the new class.

@deffn generic change-class
@end deffn

The default method for @code{change-class} decides how to implement the
change of class by looking at the slot definitions for the instance's
existing class and for the new class.  If the new class has slots with
the same name as slots in the existing class, the values for those slots
are preserved.  Slots that are present only in the existing class are
discarded.  Slots that are present only in the new class are initialized
using the corresponding slot definition's init function (@pxref{Classes,,
slot-init-function}).

@deffn {method} change-class (obj <object>) (new <class>)
Modify instance @var{obj} to make it an instance of class @var{new}.

The value of each of @var{obj}'s slots is preserved only if a similarly named
slot exists in @var{new}; any other slot values are discarded.

The slots in @var{new} that do not correspond to any of @var{obj}'s
pre-existing slots are initialized according to @var{new}'s slot definitions'
init functions.
@end deffn

Customized change of class behaviour can be implemented by defining
@code{change-class} methods that are specialized either by the class
of the instances to be modified or by the metaclass of the new class.

When a class is redefined (@pxref{Redefining a Class}), and the default
class redefinition behaviour is not overridden, GOOPS (eventually)
invokes the @code{change-class} generic function for each existing
instance of the redefined class.

@node Introspection
@subsection Introspection

@dfn{Introspection}, also known as @dfn{reflection}, is the name given
to the ability to obtain information dynamically about GOOPS metaobjects.
It is perhaps best illustrated by considering an object oriented language
that does not provide any introspection, namely C++.

Nothing in C++ allows a running program to obtain answers to the following
types of question:

@itemize @bullet
@item
What are the data members of this object or class?

@item
What classes does this class inherit from?

@item
Is this method call virtual or non-virtual?

@item
If I invoke @code{Employee::adjustHoliday()}, what class contains the
@code{adjustHoliday()} method that will be applied?
@end itemize

In C++, answers to such questions can only be determined by looking at
the source code, if you have access to it.  GOOPS, on the other hand,
includes procedures that allow answers to these questions --- or their
GOOPS equivalents --- to be obtained dynamically, at run time.

@menu
* Classes::
* Slots::
* Instances::
* Generic Functions::
* Generic Function Methods::
@end menu

@node Classes
@subsubsection Classes

@deffn {primitive procedure} class-name class
Return the name of class @var{class}.
This is the value of the @var{class} metaobject's @code{name} slot.
@end deffn

@deffn {primitive procedure} class-direct-supers class
Return a list containing the direct superclasses of @var{class}.
This is the value of the @var{class} metaobject's
@code{direct-supers} slot.
@end deffn

@deffn {primitive procedure} class-direct-slots class
Return a list containing the slot definitions of the direct slots of
@var{class}.
This is the value of the @var{class} metaobject's @code{direct-slots}
slot.
@end deffn

@deffn {primitive procedure} class-direct-subclasses class
Return a list containing the direct subclasses of @var{class}.
This is the value of the @var{class} metaobject's
@code{direct-subclasses} slot.
@end deffn

@deffn {primitive procedure} class-direct-methods class
Return a list of all the generic function methods that use @var{class}
as a formal parameter specializer.
This is the value of the @var{class} metaobject's @code{direct-methods}
slot.
@end deffn

@deffn {primitive procedure} class-precedence-list class
Return the class precedence list for class @var{class} (@pxref{Class
precedence list}).
This is the value of the @var{class} metaobject's @code{cpl} slot.
@end deffn

@deffn {primitive procedure} class-slots class
Return a list containing the slot definitions for all @var{class}'s slots,
including any slots that are inherited from superclasses.
This is the value of the @var{class} metaobject's @code{slots} slot.
@end deffn

@deffn {primitive procedure} class-environment class
Return the value of @var{class}'s @code{environment} slot.
[ *fixme*  I don't know what this value is used for. ]
@end deffn

@deffn procedure class-subclasses class
Return a list of all subclasses of @var{class}.
@end deffn

@deffn procedure class-methods class
Return a list of all methods that use @var{class} or a subclass of
@var{class} as one of its formal parameter specializers.
@end deffn

@node Slots
@subsubsection Slots

@deffn procedure class-slot-definition class slot-name
Return the slot definition for the slot named @var{slot-name} in class
@var{class}.  @var{slot-name} should be a symbol.
@end deffn

@deffn procedure slot-definition-name slot-def
Extract and return the slot name from @var{slot-def}.
@end deffn

@deffn procedure slot-definition-options slot-def
Extract and return the slot options from @var{slot-def}.
@end deffn

@deffn procedure slot-definition-allocation slot-def
Extract and return the slot allocation option from @var{slot-def}.  This
is the value of the @code{#:allocation} keyword (@pxref{Slot Options,,
allocation}), or @code{#:instance} if the @code{#:allocation} keyword is
absent.
@end deffn

@deffn procedure slot-definition-getter slot-def
Extract and return the slot getter option from @var{slot-def}.  This is
the value of the @code{#:getter} keyword (@pxref{Slot Options,,
getter}), or @code{#f} if the @code{#:getter} keyword is absent.
@end deffn

@deffn procedure slot-definition-setter slot-def
Extract and return the slot setter option from @var{slot-def}.  This is
the value of the @code{#:setter} keyword (@pxref{Slot Options,,
setter}), or @code{#f} if the @code{#:setter} keyword is absent.
@end deffn

@deffn procedure slot-definition-accessor slot-def
Extract and return the slot accessor option from @var{slot-def}.  This
is the value of the @code{#:accessor} keyword (@pxref{Slot Options,,
accessor}), or @code{#f} if the @code{#:accessor} keyword is absent.
@end deffn

@deffn procedure slot-definition-init-value slot-def
Extract and return the slot init-value option from @var{slot-def}.  This
is the value of the @code{#:init-value} keyword (@pxref{Slot Options,,
init-value}), or the unbound value if the @code{#:init-value} keyword is
absent.
@end deffn

@deffn procedure slot-definition-init-form slot-def
Extract and return the slot init-form option from @var{slot-def}.  This
is the value of the @code{#:init-form} keyword (@pxref{Slot Options,,
init-form}), or the unbound value if the @code{#:init-form} keyword is
absent.
@end deffn

@deffn procedure slot-definition-init-thunk slot-def
Extract and return the slot init-thunk option from @var{slot-def}.  This
is the value of the @code{#:init-thunk} keyword (@pxref{Slot Options,,
init-thunk}), or @code{#f} if the @code{#:init-thunk} keyword is absent.
@end deffn

@deffn procedure slot-definition-init-keyword slot-def
Extract and return the slot init-keyword option from @var{slot-def}.
This is the value of the @code{#:init-keyword} keyword (@pxref{Slot
Options,, init-keyword}), or @code{#f} if the @code{#:init-keyword}
keyword is absent.
@end deffn

@deffn procedure slot-init-function class slot-name
Return the initialization function for the slot named @var{slot-name} in
class @var{class}.  @var{slot-name} should be a symbol.

The returned initialization function incorporates the effects of the
standard @code{#:init-thunk}, @code{#:init-form} and @code{#:init-value}
slot options.  These initializations can be overridden by the
@code{#:init-keyword} slot option or by a specialized @code{initialize}
method, so, in general, the function returned by
@code{slot-init-function} may be irrelevant.  For a fuller discussion,
see @ref{Slot Options,, init-value}.
@end deffn

@node Instances
@subsubsection Instances

@deffn {primitive procedure} class-of value
Return the GOOPS class of any Scheme @var{value}.
@end deffn

@deffn {primitive procedure} instance? object
Return @code{#t} if @var{object} is any GOOPS instance, otherwise
@code{#f}.
@end deffn

@deffn procedure is-a? object class
Return @code{#t} if @var{object} is an instance of @var{class} or one of
its subclasses.
@end deffn

Implementation notes: @code{is-a?} uses @code{class-of} and
@code{class-precedence-list} to obtain the class precedence list for
@var{object}.

@node Generic Functions
@subsubsection Generic Functions

@deffn {primitive procedure} generic-function-name gf
Return the name of generic function @var{gf}.
@end deffn

@deffn {primitive procedure} generic-function-methods gf
Return a list of the methods of generic function @var{gf}.
This is the value of the @var{gf} metaobject's @code{methods} slot.
@end deffn

@node Generic Function Methods
@subsubsection Generic Function Methods

@deffn {primitive procedure} method-generic-function method
Return the generic function that @var{method} belongs to.
This is the value of the @var{method} metaobject's
@code{generic-function} slot.
@end deffn

@deffn {primitive procedure} method-specializers method
Return a list of @var{method}'s formal parameter specializers .
This is the value of the @var{method} metaobject's
@code{specializers} slot.
@end deffn

@deffn {primitive procedure} method-procedure method
Return the procedure that implements @var{method}.
This is the value of the @var{method} metaobject's
@code{procedure} slot.
@end deffn

@deffn generic method-source
@deffnx method method-source (m <method>)
Return an expression that prints to show the definition of method
@var{m}.

@example
(define-generic cube)

(define-method (cube (n <number>))
  (* n n n))

(map method-source (generic-function-methods cube))
@result{}
((method ((n <number>)) (* n n n)))
@end example
@end deffn

@node Miscellaneous Functions
@subsection Miscellaneous Functions

@menu
* Administrative Functions::
* GOOPS Error Handling::
* Object Comparisons::
* Cloning Objects::
* Write and Display::
@end menu

@node Administrative Functions
@subsubsection Administration Functions

This section describes administrative, non-technical GOOPS functions.

@deffn primitive goops-version
Return the current GOOPS version as a string, for example ``0.2''.
@end deffn

@node GOOPS Error Handling
@subsubsection Error Handling

The procedure @code{goops-error} is called to raise an appropriate error
by the default methods of the following generic functions:

@itemize @bullet
@item
@code{slot-missing} (@pxref{Handling Slot Access Errors,, slot-missing})

@item
@code{slot-unbound} (@pxref{Handling Slot Access Errors,, slot-unbound})

@item
@code{no-method} (@pxref{Handling Invocation Errors,, no-method})

@item
@code{no-applicable-method} (@pxref{Handling Invocation Errors,,
no-applicable-method})

@item
@code{no-next-method} (@pxref{Handling Invocation Errors,,
no-next-method})
@end itemize

If you customize these functions for particular classes or metaclasses,
you may still want to use @code{goops-error} to signal any error
conditions that you detect.

@deffn procedure goops-error format-string . args
Raise an error with key @code{goops-error} and error message constructed
from @var{format-string} and @var{args}.  Error message formatting is
as done by @code{scm-error}.
@end deffn

@node Object Comparisons
@subsubsection Object Comparisons

@deffn generic eqv?
@deffnx method eqv? ((x <top>) (y <top>))
@deffnx generic equal?
@deffnx method equal? ((x <top>) (y <top>))
@deffnx generic =
@deffnx method = ((x <number>) (y <number>))
Generic functions and default (unspecialized) methods for comparing two
GOOPS objects.

The default method for @code{eqv?} returns @code{#t} for all values
that are equal in the sense defined by R5RS and the Guile reference
manual, otherwise @code{#f}.  The default method for @code{equal?}
returns @code{#t} or @code{#f} in the sense defined by R5RS and the
Guile reference manual.  If no such comparison is defined,
@code{equal?} returns the result of a call to @code{eqv?}.  The
default method for = returns @code{#t} if @var{x} and @var{y} are
numerically equal, otherwise @code{#f}.

Application class authors may wish to define specialized methods for
@code{eqv?}, @code{equal?} and @code{=} that compare instances of the
same class for equality in whatever sense is useful to the
application.  Such methods will only be called if the arguments have
the same class and the result of the comparison isn't defined by R5RS
and the Guile reference manual.
@end deffn

@node Cloning Objects
@subsubsection Cloning Objects

@deffn generic shallow-clone
@deffnx method shallow-clone (self <object>)
Return a ``shallow'' clone of @var{self}.  The default method makes a
shallow clone by allocating a new instance and copying slot values from
self to the new instance.  Each slot value is copied either as an
immediate value or by reference.
@end deffn

@deffn generic deep-clone
@deffnx method deep-clone (self <object>)
Return a ``deep'' clone of @var{self}.  The default method makes a deep
clone by allocating a new instance and copying or cloning slot values
from self to the new instance.  If a slot value is an instance
(satisfies @code{instance?}), it is cloned by calling @code{deep-clone}
on that value.  Other slot values are copied either as immediate values
or by reference.
@end deffn

@node Write and Display
@subsubsection Write and Display

@deffn {primitive generic} write object port
@deffnx {primitive generic} display object port
When GOOPS is loaded, @code{write} and @code{display} become generic
functions with special methods for printing

@itemize @bullet
@item
objects - instances of the class @code{<object>}

@item
foreign objects - instances of the class @code{<foreign-object>}

@item
classes - instances of the class @code{<class>}

@item
generic functions - instances of the class @code{<generic>}

@item
methods - instances of the class @code{<method>}.
@end itemize

@code{write} and @code{display} print non-GOOPS values in the same way
as the Guile primitive @code{write} and @code{display} functions.
@end deffn

@node MOP Specification
@section MOP Specification

For an introduction to metaobjects and the metaobject protocol,
see @ref{Metaobjects and the Metaobject Protocol}.

The aim of the MOP specification in this chapter is to specify all the
customizable generic function invocations that can be made by the standard
GOOPS syntax, procedures and methods, and to explain the protocol for
customizing such invocations.

A generic function invocation is customizable if the types of the arguments
to which it is applied are not all determined by the lexical context in
which the invocation appears.  For example,

@itemize @bullet
@item
the @code{(initialize @var{instance} @var{initargs})} invocation in the
default @code{make-instance} method is customizable, because the type of the
@code{@var{instance}} argument is determined by the class that was passed to
@code{make-instance}.

@item
the @code{(make <generic> #:name ',name)} invocation in @code{define-generic}
is not customizable, because all of its arguments have lexically determined
types.
@end itemize

When using this rule to decide whether a given generic function invocation
is customizable, we ignore arguments that are expected to be handled in
method definitions as a single ``rest'' list argument.

For each customizable generic function invocation, the @dfn{invocation
protocol} is explained by specifying

@itemize @bullet
@item
what, conceptually, the applied method is intended to do

@item
what assumptions, if any, the caller makes about the applied method's side
effects

@item
what the caller expects to get as the applied method's return value.
@end itemize

@menu
* Class Definition::
* Instance Creation::
* Class Redefinition::
* Method Definition::
* Generic Function Invocation::
@end menu

@node Class Definition
@subsection Class Definition

@code{define-class} (syntax)

@itemize @bullet
@item
@code{class} (syntax)

@itemize @bullet
@item
@code{make-class} (procedure)

@itemize @bullet
@item
@code{make @var{metaclass} @dots{}} (generic)

@var{metaclass} is the metaclass of the class being defined, either
taken from the @code{#:metaclass} class option or computed by
@code{ensure-metaclass}.  The applied method must create and return the
fully initialized class metaobject for the new class definition.
@end itemize

@end itemize

@item
@code{class-redefinition @var{old-class} @var{new-class}} (generic)

@code{define-class} calls @code{class-redefinition} if the variable
specified by its first argument already held a GOOPS class definition.
@var{old-class} and @var{new-class} are the old and new class metaobjects.
The applied method should perform whatever is necessary to handle the
redefinition, and should return the class metaobject that is to be bound
to @code{define-class}'s variable.  The default class redefinition
protocol is described in @ref{Class Redefinition}.
@end itemize

The @code{(make @var{metaclass} @dots{})} invocation above will create
an class metaobject with metaclass @var{metaclass}.  By default, this
metaobject will be initialized by the @code{initialize} method that is
specialized for instances of type @code{<class>}.

@code{initialize <class> @var{initargs}} (method)

@itemize @bullet
@item
@code{compute-cpl @var{class}} (generic)

The applied method should compute and return the class precedence list
for @var{class} as a list of class metaobjects.  When @code{compute-cpl}
is called, the following @var{class} metaobject slots have all been
initialized: @code{name}, @code{direct-supers}, @code{direct-slots},
@code{direct-subclasses} (empty), @code{direct-methods}.  The value
returned by @code{compute-cpl} will be stored in the @code{cpl} slot.

@item
@code{compute-slots @var{class}} (generic)

The applied method should compute and return the slots (union of direct
and inherited) for @var{class} as a list of slot definitions.  When
@code{compute-slots} is called, all the @var{class} metaobject slots
mentioned for @code{compute-cpl} have been initialized, plus the
following: @code{cpl}, @code{redefined} (@code{#f}), @code{environment}.
The value returned by @code{compute-slots} will be stored in the
@code{slots} slot.

@item
@code{compute-get-n-set @var{class} @var{slot-def}} (generic)

@code{initialize} calls @code{compute-get-n-set} for each slot computed
by @code{compute-slots}.  The applied method should compute and return a
pair of closures that, respectively, get and set the value of the specified
slot.  The get closure should have arity 1 and expect a single argument
that is the instance whose slot value is to be retrieved.  The set closure
should have arity 2 and expect two arguments, where the first argument is
the instance whose slot value is to be set and the second argument is the
new value for that slot.  The closures should be returned in a two element
list: @code{(list @var{get} @var{set})}.

The closures returned by @code{compute-get-n-set} are stored as part of
the value of the @var{class} metaobject's @code{getters-n-setters} slot.
Specifically, the value of this slot is a list with the same number of
elements as there are slots in the class, and each element looks either like

@example
@code{(@var{slot-name-symbol} @var{init-function} . @var{index})}
@end example

or like

@example
@code{(@var{slot-name-symbol} @var{init-function} @var{get} @var{set})}
@end example

Where the get and set closures are replaced by @var{index}, the slot is
an instance slot and @var{index} is the slot's index in the underlying
structure: GOOPS knows how to get and set the value of such slots and so
does not need specially constructed get and set closures.  Otherwise,
@var{get} and @var{set} are the closures returned by @code{compute-get-n-set}.

The structure of the @code{getters-n-setters} slot value is important when
understanding the next customizable generic functions that @code{initialize}
calls@dots{}

@item
@code{compute-getter-method @var{class} @var{gns}} (generic)

@code{initialize} calls @code{compute-getter-method} for each of the class's
slots (as determined by @code{compute-slots}) that includes a
@code{#:getter} or @code{#:accessor} slot option.  @var{gns} is the
element of the @var{class} metaobject's @code{getters-n-setters} slot that
specifies how the slot in question is referenced and set, as described
above under @code{compute-get-n-set}.  The applied method should create
and return a method that is specialized for instances of type @var{class}
and uses the get closure to retrieve the slot's value.  [ *fixme  Need
to insert something here about checking that the value is not unbound. ]
@code{initialize} uses @code{add-method!} to add the returned method to
the generic function named by the slot definition's @code{#:getter} or
@code{#:accessor} option.

@item
@code{compute-setter-method @var{class} @var{gns}} (generic)

@code{compute-setter-method} is invoked with the same arguments as
@code{compute-getter-method}, for each of the class's slots that includes
a @code{#:setter} or @code{#:accessor} slot option.  The applied method
should create and return a method that is specialized for instances of
type @var{class} and uses the set closure to set the slot's value.
@code{initialize} then uses @code{add-method!} to add the returned method
to the generic function named by the slot definition's @code{#:setter}
or @code{#:accessor} option.
@end itemize

@node Instance Creation
@subsection Instance Creation

@code{make <class> . @var{initargs}} (method)

@itemize @bullet
@item
@code{allocate-instance @var{class} @var{initargs}} (generic)

The applied @code{allocate-instance} method should allocate storage for
a new instance of class @var{class} and return the uninitialized instance.

@item
@code{initialize @var{instance} @var{initargs}} (generic)

@var{instance} is the uninitialized instance returned by
@code{allocate-instance}.  The applied method should initialize the new
instance in whatever sense is appropriate for its class.  The method's
return value is ignored.
@end itemize

@node Class Redefinition
@subsection Class Redefinition

The default @code{class-redefinition} method, specialized for classes
with the default metaclass @code{<class>}, has the following internal
protocol.

@code{class-redefinition (@var{old <class>}) (@var{new <class>})}
(method)

@itemize @bullet
@item
@code{remove-class-accessors! @var{old}} (generic)

@item
@code{update-direct-method! @var{method} @var{old} @var{new}} (generic)

@item
@code{update-direct-subclass! @var{subclass} @var{old} @var{new}} (generic)
@end itemize

This protocol cleans up things that the definition of the old class
once changed and modifies things to work with the new class.

The default @code{remove-class-accessors!} method removes the
accessor methods of the old class from all classes which they
specialize.

The default @code{update-direct-method!} method substitutes the new
class for the old in all methods specialized to the old class.

The default @code{update-direct-subclass!} method invokes
@code{class-redefinition} recursively to handle the redefinition of
subclasses.

When a class is redefined, any existing instance of the redefined class
will be modified for the new class definition before the next time that
any of the instance's slot is referenced or set.  GOOPS modifies each
instance by calling the generic function @code{change-class}.

The default @code{change-class} method copies slot values from the old
to the modified instance, and initializes new slots, as described in
@ref{Changing the Class of an Instance}.  After doing so, it makes a
generic function invocation that can be used to customize the instance
update algorithm.

@code{change-class (@var{old-instance <object>}) (@var{new <class>})} (method)

@itemize @bullet
@item
@code{update-instance-for-different-class @var{old-instance} @var{new-instance}} (generic)

@code{change-class} invokes @code{update-instance-for-different-class}
as the last thing that it does before returning.  The applied method can
make any further adjustments to @var{new-instance} that are required to
complete or modify the change of class.  The return value from the
applied method is ignored.

The default @code{update-instance-for-different-class} method does
nothing.
@end itemize

@node Method Definition
@subsection Method Definition

@code{define-method} (syntax)

@itemize @bullet
@item
@code{add-method! @var{target} @var{method}} (generic)

@code{define-method} invokes the @code{add-method!} generic function to
handle adding the new method to a variety of possible targets.  GOOPS
includes methods to handle @var{target} as

@itemize @bullet
@item
a generic function (the most common case)

@item
a procedure

@item
a primitive generic (@pxref{Extending Guiles Primitives})
@end itemize

By defining further methods for @code{add-method!}, you can
theoretically handle adding methods to further types of target.
@end itemize

@node Generic Function Invocation
@subsection Generic Function Invocation

[ *fixme* Description required here. ]

@code{apply-generic}

@itemize @bullet
@item
@code{no-method}

@item
@code{compute-applicable-methods}

@item
@code{sort-applicable-methods}

@item
@code{apply-methods}

@item
@code{no-applicable-method}
@end itemize

@code{sort-applicable-methods}

@itemize @bullet
@item
@code{method-more-specific?}
@end itemize

@code{apply-methods}

@itemize @bullet
@item
@code{apply-method}
@end itemize

@code{next-method}

@itemize @bullet
@item
@code{no-next-method}
@end itemize