Improved support for Unicode title case in Guile's string and character APIs.

[bpt/guile.git] / doc / ref / api-data.texi

@c -*-texinfo-*-
@c This is part of the GNU Guile Reference Manual.
@c Copyright (C)  1996, 1997, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009
@c   Free Software Foundation, Inc.
@c See the file guile.texi for copying conditions.

@page
@node Simple Data Types
@section Simple Generic Data Types

This chapter describes those of Guile's simple data types which are
primarily used for their role as items of generic data.  By
@dfn{simple} we mean data types that are not primarily used as
containers to hold other data --- i.e.@: pairs, lists, vectors and so on.
For the documentation of such @dfn{compound} data types, see
@ref{Compound Data Types}.

@c One of the great strengths of Scheme is that there is no straightforward
@c distinction between ``data'' and ``functionality''.  For example,
@c Guile's support for dynamic linking could be described:

@c @itemize @bullet
@c @item
@c either in a ``data-centric'' way, as the behaviour and properties of the
@c ``dynamically linked object'' data type, and the operations that may be
@c applied to instances of this type

@c @item
@c or in a ``functionality-centric'' way, as the set of procedures that
@c constitute Guile's support for dynamic linking, in the context of the
@c module system.
@c @end itemize

@c The contents of this chapter are, therefore, a matter of judgment.  By
@c @dfn{generic}, we mean to select those data types whose typical use as
@c @emph{data} in a wide variety of programming contexts is more important
@c than their use in the implementation of a particular piece of
@c @emph{functionality}.  The last section of this chapter provides
@c references for all the data types that are documented not here but in a
@c ``functionality-centric'' way elsewhere in the manual.

@menu
* Booleans::                    True/false values.
* Numbers::                     Numerical data types.
* Characters::                  Single characters.
* Character Sets::              Sets of characters.
* Strings::                     Sequences of characters.
* Bytevectors::                 Sequences of bytes.
* Regular Expressions::         Pattern matching and substitution.
* Symbols::                     Symbols.
* Keywords::                    Self-quoting, customizable display keywords.
* Other Types::                 "Functionality-centric" data types.
@end menu


@node Booleans
@subsection Booleans
@tpindex Booleans

The two boolean values are @code{#t} for true and @code{#f} for false.

Boolean values are returned by predicate procedures, such as the general
equality predicates @code{eq?}, @code{eqv?} and @code{equal?}
(@pxref{Equality}) and numerical and string comparison operators like
@code{string=?} (@pxref{String Comparison}) and @code{<=}
(@pxref{Comparison}).

@lisp
(<= 3 8)
@result{} #t

(<= 3 -3)
@result{} #f

(equal? "house" "houses")
@result{} #f

(eq? #f #f)
@result{}
#t
@end lisp

In test condition contexts like @code{if} and @code{cond} (@pxref{if
cond case}), where a group of subexpressions will be evaluated only if a
@var{condition} expression evaluates to ``true'', ``true'' means any
value at all except @code{#f}.

@lisp
(if #t "yes" "no")
@result{} "yes"

(if 0 "yes" "no")
@result{} "yes"

(if #f "yes" "no")
@result{} "no"
@end lisp

A result of this asymmetry is that typical Scheme source code more often
uses @code{#f} explicitly than @code{#t}: @code{#f} is necessary to
represent an @code{if} or @code{cond} false value, whereas @code{#t} is
not necessary to represent an @code{if} or @code{cond} true value.

It is important to note that @code{#f} is @strong{not} equivalent to any
other Scheme value.  In particular, @code{#f} is not the same as the
number 0 (like in C and C++), and not the same as the ``empty list''
(like in some Lisp dialects).

In C, the two Scheme boolean values are available as the two constants
@code{SCM_BOOL_T} for @code{#t} and @code{SCM_BOOL_F} for @code{#f}.
Care must be taken with the false value @code{SCM_BOOL_F}: it is not
false when used in C conditionals.  In order to test for it, use
@code{scm_is_false} or @code{scm_is_true}.

@rnindex not
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} not x
@deffnx {C Function} scm_not (x)
Return @code{#t} if @var{x} is @code{#f}, else return @code{#f}.
@end deffn

@rnindex boolean?
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} boolean? obj
@deffnx {C Function} scm_boolean_p (obj)
Return @code{#t} if @var{obj} is either @code{#t} or @code{#f}, else
return @code{#f}.
@end deffn

@deftypevr {C Macro} SCM SCM_BOOL_T
The @code{SCM} representation of the Scheme object @code{#t}.
@end deftypevr

@deftypevr {C Macro} SCM SCM_BOOL_F
The @code{SCM} representation of the Scheme object @code{#f}.
@end deftypevr

@deftypefn {C Function} int scm_is_true (SCM obj)
Return @code{0} if @var{obj} is @code{#f}, else return @code{1}.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn {C Function} int scm_is_false (SCM obj)
Return @code{1} if @var{obj} is @code{#f}, else return @code{0}.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn {C Function} int scm_is_bool (SCM obj)
Return @code{1} if @var{obj} is either @code{#t} or @code{#f}, else
return @code{0}.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn {C Function} SCM scm_from_bool (int val)
Return @code{#f} if @var{val} is @code{0}, else return @code{#t}.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn {C Function} int scm_to_bool (SCM val)
Return @code{1} if @var{val} is @code{SCM_BOOL_T}, return @code{0}
when @var{val} is @code{SCM_BOOL_F}, else signal a `wrong type' error.

You should probably use @code{scm_is_true} instead of this function
when you just want to test a @code{SCM} value for trueness.
@end deftypefn

@node Numbers
@subsection Numerical data types
@tpindex Numbers

Guile supports a rich ``tower'' of numerical types --- integer,
rational, real and complex --- and provides an extensive set of
mathematical and scientific functions for operating on numerical
data.  This section of the manual documents those types and functions.

You may also find it illuminating to read R5RS's presentation of numbers
in Scheme, which is particularly clear and accessible: see
@ref{Numbers,,,r5rs,R5RS}.

@menu
* Numerical Tower::             Scheme's numerical "tower".
* Integers::                    Whole numbers.
* Reals and Rationals::         Real and rational numbers.
* Complex Numbers::             Complex numbers.
* Exactness::                   Exactness and inexactness.
* Number Syntax::               Read syntax for numerical data.
* Integer Operations::          Operations on integer values.
* Comparison::                  Comparison predicates.
* Conversion::                  Converting numbers to and from strings.
* Complex::                     Complex number operations.
* Arithmetic::                  Arithmetic functions.
* Scientific::                  Scientific functions.
* Bitwise Operations::          Logical AND, OR, NOT, and so on.
* Random::                      Random number generation.
@end menu


@node Numerical Tower
@subsubsection Scheme's Numerical ``Tower''
@rnindex number?

Scheme's numerical ``tower'' consists of the following categories of
numbers:

@table @dfn
@item integers
Whole numbers, positive or negative; e.g.@: --5, 0, 18.

@item rationals
The set of numbers that can be expressed as @math{@var{p}/@var{q}}
where @var{p} and @var{q} are integers; e.g.@: @math{9/16} works, but
pi (an irrational number) doesn't. These include integers
(@math{@var{n}/1}).

@item real numbers
The set of numbers that describes all possible positions along a
one-dimensional line. This includes rationals as well as irrational
numbers.

@item complex numbers
The set of numbers that describes all possible positions in a two
dimensional space. This includes real as well as imaginary numbers
(@math{@var{a}+@var{b}i}, where @var{a} is the @dfn{real part},
@var{b} is the @dfn{imaginary part}, and @math{i} is the square root of
@minus{}1.)
@end table

It is called a tower because each category ``sits on'' the one that
follows it, in the sense that every integer is also a rational, every
rational is also real, and every real number is also a complex number
(but with zero imaginary part).

In addition to the classification into integers, rationals, reals and
complex numbers, Scheme also distinguishes between whether a number is
represented exactly or not.  For example, the result of
@m{2\sin(\pi/4),2*sin(pi/4)} is exactly @m{\sqrt{2},2^(1/2)}, but Guile
can represent neither @m{\pi/4,pi/4} nor @m{\sqrt{2},2^(1/2)} exactly.
Instead, it stores an inexact approximation, using the C type
@code{double}.

Guile can represent exact rationals of any magnitude, inexact
rationals that fit into a C @code{double}, and inexact complex numbers
with @code{double} real and imaginary parts.

The @code{number?} predicate may be applied to any Scheme value to
discover whether the value is any of the supported numerical types.

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} number? obj
@deffnx {C Function} scm_number_p (obj)
Return @code{#t} if @var{obj} is any kind of number, else @code{#f}.
@end deffn

For example:

@lisp
(number? 3)
@result{} #t

(number? "hello there!")
@result{} #f

(define pi 3.141592654)
(number? pi)
@result{} #t
@end lisp

@deftypefn {C Function} int scm_is_number (SCM obj)
This is equivalent to @code{scm_is_true (scm_number_p (obj))}.
@end deftypefn

The next few subsections document each of Guile's numerical data types
in detail.

@node Integers
@subsubsection Integers

@tpindex Integer numbers

@rnindex integer?

Integers are whole numbers, that is numbers with no fractional part,
such as 2, 83, and @minus{}3789.

Integers in Guile can be arbitrarily big, as shown by the following
example.

@lisp
(define (factorial n)
  (let loop ((n n) (product 1))
    (if (= n 0)
        product
        (loop (- n 1) (* product n)))))

(factorial 3)
@result{} 6

(factorial 20)
@result{} 2432902008176640000

(- (factorial 45))
@result{} -119622220865480194561963161495657715064383733760000000000
@end lisp

Readers whose background is in programming languages where integers are
limited by the need to fit into just 4 or 8 bytes of memory may find
this surprising, or suspect that Guile's representation of integers is
inefficient.  In fact, Guile achieves a near optimal balance of
convenience and efficiency by using the host computer's native
representation of integers where possible, and a more general
representation where the required number does not fit in the native
form.  Conversion between these two representations is automatic and
completely invisible to the Scheme level programmer.

The infinities @samp{+inf.0} and @samp{-inf.0} are considered to be
inexact integers.  They are explained in detail in the next section,
together with reals and rationals.

C has a host of different integer types, and Guile offers a host of
functions to convert between them and the @code{SCM} representation.
For example, a C @code{int} can be handled with @code{scm_to_int} and
@code{scm_from_int}.  Guile also defines a few C integer types of its
own, to help with differences between systems.

C integer types that are not covered can be handled with the generic
@code{scm_to_signed_integer} and @code{scm_from_signed_integer} for
signed types, or with @code{scm_to_unsigned_integer} and
@code{scm_from_unsigned_integer} for unsigned types.

Scheme integers can be exact and inexact.  For example, a number
written as @code{3.0} with an explicit decimal-point is inexact, but
it is also an integer.  The functions @code{integer?} and
@code{scm_is_integer} report true for such a number, but the functions
@code{scm_is_signed_integer} and @code{scm_is_unsigned_integer} only
allow exact integers and thus report false.  Likewise, the conversion
functions like @code{scm_to_signed_integer} only accept exact
integers.

The motivation for this behavior is that the inexactness of a number
should not be lost silently.  If you want to allow inexact integers,
you can explicitly insert a call to @code{inexact->exact} or to its C
equivalent @code{scm_inexact_to_exact}.  (Only inexact integers will
be converted by this call into exact integers; inexact non-integers
will become exact fractions.)

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} integer? x
@deffnx {C Function} scm_integer_p (x)
Return @code{#t} if @var{x} is an exact or inexact integer number, else
@code{#f}.

@lisp
(integer? 487)
@result{} #t

(integer? 3.0)
@result{} #t

(integer? -3.4)
@result{} #f

(integer? +inf.0)
@result{} #t
@end lisp
@end deffn

@deftypefn {C Function} int scm_is_integer (SCM x)
This is equivalent to @code{scm_is_true (scm_integer_p (x))}.
@end deftypefn

@defvr  {C Type} scm_t_int8
@defvrx {C Type} scm_t_uint8
@defvrx {C Type} scm_t_int16
@defvrx {C Type} scm_t_uint16
@defvrx {C Type} scm_t_int32
@defvrx {C Type} scm_t_uint32
@defvrx {C Type} scm_t_int64
@defvrx {C Type} scm_t_uint64
@defvrx {C Type} scm_t_intmax
@defvrx {C Type} scm_t_uintmax
The C types are equivalent to the corresponding ISO C types but are
defined on all platforms, with the exception of @code{scm_t_int64} and
@code{scm_t_uint64}, which are only defined when a 64-bit type is
available.  For example, @code{scm_t_int8} is equivalent to
@code{int8_t}.

You can regard these definitions as a stop-gap measure until all
platforms provide these types.  If you know that all the platforms
that you are interested in already provide these types, it is better
to use them directly instead of the types provided by Guile.
@end defvr

@deftypefn  {C Function} int scm_is_signed_integer (SCM x, scm_t_intmax min, scm_t_intmax max)
@deftypefnx {C Function} int scm_is_unsigned_integer (SCM x, scm_t_uintmax min, scm_t_uintmax max)
Return @code{1} when @var{x} represents an exact integer that is
between @var{min} and @var{max}, inclusive.

These functions can be used to check whether a @code{SCM} value will
fit into a given range, such as the range of a given C integer type.
If you just want to convert a @code{SCM} value to a given C integer
type, use one of the conversion functions directly.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn  {C Function} scm_t_intmax scm_to_signed_integer (SCM x, scm_t_intmax min, scm_t_intmax max)
@deftypefnx {C Function} scm_t_uintmax scm_to_unsigned_integer (SCM x, scm_t_uintmax min, scm_t_uintmax max)
When @var{x} represents an exact integer that is between @var{min} and
@var{max} inclusive, return that integer.  Else signal an error,
either a `wrong-type' error when @var{x} is not an exact integer, or
an `out-of-range' error when it doesn't fit the given range.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn  {C Function} SCM scm_from_signed_integer (scm_t_intmax x)
@deftypefnx {C Function} SCM scm_from_unsigned_integer (scm_t_uintmax x)
Return the @code{SCM} value that represents the integer @var{x}.  This
function will always succeed and will always return an exact number.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn  {C Function} char scm_to_char (SCM x)
@deftypefnx {C Function} {signed char} scm_to_schar (SCM x)
@deftypefnx {C Function} {unsigned char} scm_to_uchar (SCM x)
@deftypefnx {C Function} short scm_to_short (SCM x)
@deftypefnx {C Function} {unsigned short} scm_to_ushort (SCM x)
@deftypefnx {C Function} int scm_to_int (SCM x)
@deftypefnx {C Function} {unsigned int} scm_to_uint (SCM x)
@deftypefnx {C Function} long scm_to_long (SCM x)
@deftypefnx {C Function} {unsigned long} scm_to_ulong (SCM x)
@deftypefnx {C Function} {long long} scm_to_long_long (SCM x)
@deftypefnx {C Function} {unsigned long long} scm_to_ulong_long (SCM x)
@deftypefnx {C Function} size_t scm_to_size_t (SCM x)
@deftypefnx {C Function} ssize_t scm_to_ssize_t (SCM x)
@deftypefnx {C Function} scm_t_int8 scm_to_int8 (SCM x)
@deftypefnx {C Function} scm_t_uint8 scm_to_uint8 (SCM x)
@deftypefnx {C Function} scm_t_int16 scm_to_int16 (SCM x)
@deftypefnx {C Function} scm_t_uint16 scm_to_uint16 (SCM x)
@deftypefnx {C Function} scm_t_int32 scm_to_int32 (SCM x)
@deftypefnx {C Function} scm_t_uint32 scm_to_uint32 (SCM x)
@deftypefnx {C Function} scm_t_int64 scm_to_int64 (SCM x)
@deftypefnx {C Function} scm_t_uint64 scm_to_uint64 (SCM x)
@deftypefnx {C Function} scm_t_intmax scm_to_intmax (SCM x)
@deftypefnx {C Function} scm_t_uintmax scm_to_uintmax (SCM x)
When @var{x} represents an exact integer that fits into the indicated
C type, return that integer.  Else signal an error, either a
`wrong-type' error when @var{x} is not an exact integer, or an
`out-of-range' error when it doesn't fit the given range.

The functions @code{scm_to_long_long}, @code{scm_to_ulong_long},
@code{scm_to_int64}, and @code{scm_to_uint64} are only available when
the corresponding types are.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn  {C Function} SCM scm_from_char (char x)
@deftypefnx {C Function} SCM scm_from_schar (signed char x)
@deftypefnx {C Function} SCM scm_from_uchar (unsigned char x)
@deftypefnx {C Function} SCM scm_from_short (short x)
@deftypefnx {C Function} SCM scm_from_ushort (unsigned short x)
@deftypefnx {C Function} SCM scm_from_int (int  x)
@deftypefnx {C Function} SCM scm_from_uint (unsigned int x)
@deftypefnx {C Function} SCM scm_from_long (long x)
@deftypefnx {C Function} SCM scm_from_ulong (unsigned long x)
@deftypefnx {C Function} SCM scm_from_long_long (long long x)
@deftypefnx {C Function} SCM scm_from_ulong_long (unsigned long long x)
@deftypefnx {C Function} SCM scm_from_size_t (size_t x)
@deftypefnx {C Function} SCM scm_from_ssize_t (ssize_t x)
@deftypefnx {C Function} SCM scm_from_int8 (scm_t_int8 x)
@deftypefnx {C Function} SCM scm_from_uint8 (scm_t_uint8 x)
@deftypefnx {C Function} SCM scm_from_int16 (scm_t_int16 x)
@deftypefnx {C Function} SCM scm_from_uint16 (scm_t_uint16 x)
@deftypefnx {C Function} SCM scm_from_int32 (scm_t_int32 x)
@deftypefnx {C Function} SCM scm_from_uint32 (scm_t_uint32 x)
@deftypefnx {C Function} SCM scm_from_int64 (scm_t_int64 x)
@deftypefnx {C Function} SCM scm_from_uint64 (scm_t_uint64 x)
@deftypefnx {C Function} SCM scm_from_intmax (scm_t_intmax x)
@deftypefnx {C Function} SCM scm_from_uintmax (scm_t_uintmax x)
Return the @code{SCM} value that represents the integer @var{x}.
These functions will always succeed and will always return an exact
number.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn {C Function} void scm_to_mpz (SCM val, mpz_t rop)
Assign @var{val} to the multiple precision integer @var{rop}.
@var{val} must be an exact integer, otherwise an error will be
signalled.  @var{rop} must have been initialized with @code{mpz_init}
before this function is called.  When @var{rop} is no longer needed
the occupied space must be freed with @code{mpz_clear}.
@xref{Initializing Integers,,, gmp, GNU MP Manual}, for details.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn {C Function} SCM scm_from_mpz (mpz_t val)
Return the @code{SCM} value that represents @var{val}.
@end deftypefn

@node Reals and Rationals
@subsubsection Real and Rational Numbers
@tpindex Real numbers
@tpindex Rational numbers

@rnindex real?
@rnindex rational?

Mathematically, the real numbers are the set of numbers that describe
all possible points along a continuous, infinite, one-dimensional line.
The rational numbers are the set of all numbers that can be written as
fractions @var{p}/@var{q}, where @var{p} and @var{q} are integers.
All rational numbers are also real, but there are real numbers that
are not rational, for example @m{\sqrt2, the square root of 2}, and
@m{\pi,pi}.

Guile can represent both exact and inexact rational numbers, but it
can not represent irrational numbers.  Exact rationals are represented
by storing the numerator and denominator as two exact integers.
Inexact rationals are stored as floating point numbers using the C
type @code{double}.

Exact rationals are written as a fraction of integers.  There must be
no whitespace around the slash:

@lisp
1/2
-22/7
@end lisp

Even though the actual encoding of inexact rationals is in binary, it
may be helpful to think of it as a decimal number with a limited
number of significant figures and a decimal point somewhere, since
this corresponds to the standard notation for non-whole numbers.  For
example:

@lisp
0.34
-0.00000142857931198
-5648394822220000000000.0
4.0
@end lisp

The limited precision of Guile's encoding means that any ``real'' number
in Guile can be written in a rational form, by multiplying and then dividing
by sufficient powers of 10 (or in fact, 2).  For example,
@samp{-0.00000142857931198} is the same as @minus{}142857931198 divided by
100000000000000000.  In Guile's current incarnation, therefore, the
@code{rational?} and @code{real?} predicates are equivalent.


Dividing by an exact zero leads to a error message, as one might
expect.  However, dividing by an inexact zero does not produce an
error.  Instead, the result of the division is either plus or minus
infinity, depending on the sign of the divided number.

The infinities are written @samp{+inf.0} and @samp{-inf.0},
respectively.  This syntax is also recognized by @code{read} as an
extension to the usual Scheme syntax.

Dividing zero by zero yields something that is not a number at all:
@samp{+nan.0}.  This is the special `not a number' value.

On platforms that follow @acronym{IEEE} 754 for their floating point
arithmetic, the @samp{+inf.0}, @samp{-inf.0}, and @samp{+nan.0} values
are implemented using the corresponding @acronym{IEEE} 754 values.
They behave in arithmetic operations like @acronym{IEEE} 754 describes
it, i.e., @code{(= +nan.0 +nan.0)} @result{} @code{#f}.

The infinities are inexact integers and are considered to be both even
and odd.  While @samp{+nan.0} is not @code{=} to itself, it is
@code{eqv?} to itself.

To test for the special values, use the functions @code{inf?} and
@code{nan?}.

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} real? obj
@deffnx {C Function} scm_real_p (obj)
Return @code{#t} if @var{obj} is a real number, else @code{#f}.  Note
that the sets of integer and rational values form subsets of the set
of real numbers, so the predicate will also be fulfilled if @var{obj}
is an integer number or a rational number.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} rational? x
@deffnx {C Function} scm_rational_p (x)
Return @code{#t} if @var{x} is a rational number, @code{#f} otherwise.
Note that the set of integer values forms a subset of the set of
rational numbers, i. e. the predicate will also be fulfilled if
@var{x} is an integer number.

Since Guile can not represent irrational numbers, every number
satisfying @code{real?} also satisfies @code{rational?} in Guile.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} rationalize x eps
@deffnx {C Function} scm_rationalize (x, eps)
Returns the @emph{simplest} rational number differing
from @var{x} by no more than @var{eps}.  

As required by @acronym{R5RS}, @code{rationalize} only returns an
exact result when both its arguments are exact.  Thus, you might need
to use @code{inexact->exact} on the arguments.

@lisp
(rationalize (inexact->exact 1.2) 1/100)
@result{} 6/5
@end lisp

@end deffn

@deffn  {Scheme Procedure} inf? x
@deffnx {C Function} scm_inf_p (x)
Return @code{#t} if @var{x} is either @samp{+inf.0} or @samp{-inf.0},
@code{#f} otherwise.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} nan? x
@deffnx {C Function} scm_nan_p (x)
Return @code{#t} if @var{x} is @samp{+nan.0}, @code{#f} otherwise.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} nan
@deffnx {C Function} scm_nan ()
Return NaN.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} inf
@deffnx {C Function} scm_inf ()
Return Inf.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} numerator x
@deffnx {C Function} scm_numerator (x)
Return the numerator of the rational number @var{x}.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} denominator x
@deffnx {C Function} scm_denominator (x)
Return the denominator of the rational number @var{x}.
@end deffn

@deftypefn  {C Function} int scm_is_real (SCM val)
@deftypefnx {C Function} int scm_is_rational (SCM val)
Equivalent to @code{scm_is_true (scm_real_p (val))} and
@code{scm_is_true (scm_rational_p (val))}, respectively.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn {C Function} double scm_to_double (SCM val)
Returns the number closest to @var{val} that is representable as a
@code{double}.  Returns infinity for a @var{val} that is too large in
magnitude.  The argument @var{val} must be a real number.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn {C Function} SCM scm_from_double (double val)
Return the @code{SCM} value that represents @var{val}.  The returned
value is inexact according to the predicate @code{inexact?}, but it
will be exactly equal to @var{val}.
@end deftypefn

@node Complex Numbers
@subsubsection Complex Numbers
@tpindex Complex numbers

@rnindex complex?

Complex numbers are the set of numbers that describe all possible points
in a two-dimensional space.  The two coordinates of a particular point
in this space are known as the @dfn{real} and @dfn{imaginary} parts of
the complex number that describes that point.

In Guile, complex numbers are written in rectangular form as the sum of
their real and imaginary parts, using the symbol @code{i} to indicate
the imaginary part.

@lisp
3+4i
@result{}
3.0+4.0i

(* 3-8i 2.3+0.3i)
@result{}
9.3-17.5i
@end lisp

@cindex polar form
@noindent
Polar form can also be used, with an @samp{@@} between magnitude and
angle,

@lisp
1@@3.141592 @result{} -1.0      (approx)
-1@@1.57079 @result{} 0.0-1.0i  (approx)
@end lisp

Guile represents a complex number with a non-zero imaginary part as a
pair of inexact rationals, so the real and imaginary parts of a
complex number have the same properties of inexactness and limited
precision as single inexact rational numbers.  Guile can not represent
exact complex numbers with non-zero imaginary parts.

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} complex? z
@deffnx {C Function} scm_complex_p (z)
Return @code{#t} if @var{x} is a complex number, @code{#f}
otherwise.  Note that the sets of real, rational and integer
values form subsets of the set of complex numbers, i. e. the
predicate will also be fulfilled if @var{x} is a real,
rational or integer number.
@end deffn

@deftypefn {C Function} int scm_is_complex (SCM val)
Equivalent to @code{scm_is_true (scm_complex_p (val))}.
@end deftypefn

@node Exactness
@subsubsection Exact and Inexact Numbers
@tpindex Exact numbers
@tpindex Inexact numbers

@rnindex exact?
@rnindex inexact?
@rnindex exact->inexact
@rnindex inexact->exact

R5RS requires that a calculation involving inexact numbers always
produces an inexact result.  To meet this requirement, Guile
distinguishes between an exact integer value such as @samp{5} and the
corresponding inexact real value which, to the limited precision
available, has no fractional part, and is printed as @samp{5.0}.  Guile
will only convert the latter value to the former when forced to do so by
an invocation of the @code{inexact->exact} procedure.

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} exact? z
@deffnx {C Function} scm_exact_p (z)
Return @code{#t} if the number @var{z} is exact, @code{#f}
otherwise.

@lisp
(exact? 2)
@result{} #t

(exact? 0.5)
@result{} #f

(exact? (/ 2))
@result{} #t
@end lisp

@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} inexact? z
@deffnx {C Function} scm_inexact_p (z)
Return @code{#t} if the number @var{z} is inexact, @code{#f}
else.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} inexact->exact z
@deffnx {C Function} scm_inexact_to_exact (z)
Return an exact number that is numerically closest to @var{z}, when
there is one.  For inexact rationals, Guile returns the exact rational
that is numerically equal to the inexact rational.  Inexact complex
numbers with a non-zero imaginary part can not be made exact.

@lisp
(inexact->exact 0.5)
@result{} 1/2
@end lisp

The following happens because 12/10 is not exactly representable as a
@code{double} (on most platforms).  However, when reading a decimal
number that has been marked exact with the ``#e'' prefix, Guile is
able to represent it correctly.

@lisp
(inexact->exact 1.2)  
@result{} 5404319552844595/4503599627370496

#e1.2
@result{} 6/5
@end lisp

@end deffn

@c begin (texi-doc-string "guile" "exact->inexact")
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} exact->inexact z
@deffnx {C Function} scm_exact_to_inexact (z)
Convert the number @var{z} to its inexact representation.
@end deffn


@node Number Syntax
@subsubsection Read Syntax for Numerical Data

The read syntax for integers is a string of digits, optionally
preceded by a minus or plus character, a code indicating the
base in which the integer is encoded, and a code indicating whether
the number is exact or inexact.  The supported base codes are:

@table @code
@item #b
@itemx #B
the integer is written in binary (base 2)

@item #o
@itemx #O
the integer is written in octal (base 8)

@item #d
@itemx #D
the integer is written in decimal (base 10)

@item #x
@itemx #X
the integer is written in hexadecimal (base 16)
@end table

If the base code is omitted, the integer is assumed to be decimal.  The
following examples show how these base codes are used.

@lisp
-13
@result{} -13

#d-13
@result{} -13

#x-13
@result{} -19

#b+1101
@result{} 13

#o377
@result{} 255
@end lisp

The codes for indicating exactness (which can, incidentally, be applied
to all numerical values) are:

@table @code
@item #e
@itemx #E
the number is exact

@item #i
@itemx #I
the number is inexact.
@end table

If the exactness indicator is omitted, the number is exact unless it
contains a radix point.  Since Guile can not represent exact complex
numbers, an error is signalled when asking for them.

@lisp
(exact? 1.2)
@result{} #f

(exact? #e1.2)
@result{} #t

(exact? #e+1i)
ERROR: Wrong type argument
@end lisp

Guile also understands the syntax @samp{+inf.0} and @samp{-inf.0} for
plus and minus infinity, respectively.  The value must be written
exactly as shown, that is, they always must have a sign and exactly
one zero digit after the decimal point.  It also understands
@samp{+nan.0} and @samp{-nan.0} for the special `not-a-number' value.
The sign is ignored for `not-a-number' and the value is always printed
as @samp{+nan.0}.

@node Integer Operations
@subsubsection Operations on Integer Values
@rnindex odd?
@rnindex even?
@rnindex quotient
@rnindex remainder
@rnindex modulo
@rnindex gcd
@rnindex lcm

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} odd? n
@deffnx {C Function} scm_odd_p (n)
Return @code{#t} if @var{n} is an odd number, @code{#f}
otherwise.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} even? n
@deffnx {C Function} scm_even_p (n)
Return @code{#t} if @var{n} is an even number, @code{#f}
otherwise.
@end deffn

@c begin (texi-doc-string "guile" "quotient")
@c begin (texi-doc-string "guile" "remainder")
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} quotient n d
@deffnx {Scheme Procedure} remainder n d
@deffnx {C Function} scm_quotient (n, d)
@deffnx {C Function} scm_remainder (n, d)
Return the quotient or remainder from @var{n} divided by @var{d}.  The
quotient is rounded towards zero, and the remainder will have the same
sign as @var{n}.  In all cases quotient and remainder satisfy
@math{@var{n} = @var{q}*@var{d} + @var{r}}.

@lisp
(remainder 13 4) @result{} 1
(remainder -13 4) @result{} -1
@end lisp
@end deffn

@c begin (texi-doc-string "guile" "modulo")
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} modulo n d
@deffnx {C Function} scm_modulo (n, d)
Return the remainder from @var{n} divided by @var{d}, with the same
sign as @var{d}.

@lisp
(modulo 13 4) @result{} 1
(modulo -13 4) @result{} 3
(modulo 13 -4) @result{} -3
(modulo -13 -4) @result{} -1
@end lisp
@end deffn

@c begin (texi-doc-string "guile" "gcd")
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} gcd x@dots{}
@deffnx {C Function} scm_gcd (x, y)
Return the greatest common divisor of all arguments.
If called without arguments, 0 is returned.

The C function @code{scm_gcd} always takes two arguments, while the
Scheme function can take an arbitrary number.
@end deffn

@c begin (texi-doc-string "guile" "lcm")
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} lcm x@dots{}
@deffnx {C Function} scm_lcm (x, y)
Return the least common multiple of the arguments.
If called without arguments, 1 is returned.

The C function @code{scm_lcm} always takes two arguments, while the
Scheme function can take an arbitrary number.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} modulo-expt n k m
@deffnx {C Function} scm_modulo_expt (n, k, m)
Return @var{n} raised to the integer exponent
@var{k}, modulo @var{m}.

@lisp
(modulo-expt 2 3 5)
   @result{} 3
@end lisp
@end deffn

@node Comparison
@subsubsection Comparison Predicates
@rnindex zero?
@rnindex positive?
@rnindex negative?

The C comparison functions below always takes two arguments, while the
Scheme functions can take an arbitrary number.  Also keep in mind that
the C functions return one of the Scheme boolean values
@code{SCM_BOOL_T} or @code{SCM_BOOL_F} which are both true as far as C
is concerned.  Thus, always write @code{scm_is_true (scm_num_eq_p (x,
y))} when testing the two Scheme numbers @code{x} and @code{y} for
equality, for example.

@c begin (texi-doc-string "guile" "=")
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} =
@deffnx {C Function} scm_num_eq_p (x, y)
Return @code{#t} if all parameters are numerically equal.
@end deffn

@c begin (texi-doc-string "guile" "<")
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} <
@deffnx {C Function} scm_less_p (x, y)
Return @code{#t} if the list of parameters is monotonically
increasing.
@end deffn

@c begin (texi-doc-string "guile" ">")
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} >
@deffnx {C Function} scm_gr_p (x, y)
Return @code{#t} if the list of parameters is monotonically
decreasing.
@end deffn

@c begin (texi-doc-string "guile" "<=")
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} <=
@deffnx {C Function} scm_leq_p (x, y)
Return @code{#t} if the list of parameters is monotonically
non-decreasing.
@end deffn

@c begin (texi-doc-string "guile" ">=")
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} >=
@deffnx {C Function} scm_geq_p (x, y)
Return @code{#t} if the list of parameters is monotonically
non-increasing.
@end deffn

@c begin (texi-doc-string "guile" "zero?")
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} zero? z
@deffnx {C Function} scm_zero_p (z)
Return @code{#t} if @var{z} is an exact or inexact number equal to
zero.
@end deffn

@c begin (texi-doc-string "guile" "positive?")
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} positive? x
@deffnx {C Function} scm_positive_p (x)
Return @code{#t} if @var{x} is an exact or inexact number greater than
zero.
@end deffn

@c begin (texi-doc-string "guile" "negative?")
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} negative? x
@deffnx {C Function} scm_negative_p (x)
Return @code{#t} if @var{x} is an exact or inexact number less than
zero.
@end deffn


@node Conversion
@subsubsection Converting Numbers To and From Strings
@rnindex number->string
@rnindex string->number

The following procedures read and write numbers according to their
external representation as defined by R5RS (@pxref{Lexical structure,
R5RS Lexical Structure,, r5rs, The Revised^5 Report on the Algorithmic
Language Scheme}).  @xref{Number Input and Output, the @code{(ice-9
i18n)} module}, for locale-dependent number parsing.

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} number->string n [radix]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_number_to_string (n, radix)
Return a string holding the external representation of the
number @var{n} in the given @var{radix}.  If @var{n} is
inexact, a radix of 10 will be used.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string->number string [radix]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_to_number (string, radix)
Return a number of the maximally precise representation
expressed by the given @var{string}. @var{radix} must be an
exact integer, either 2, 8, 10, or 16. If supplied, @var{radix}
is a default radix that may be overridden by an explicit radix
prefix in @var{string} (e.g. "#o177"). If @var{radix} is not
supplied, then the default radix is 10. If string is not a
syntactically valid notation for a number, then
@code{string->number} returns @code{#f}.
@end deffn

@deftypefn {C Function} SCM scm_c_locale_stringn_to_number (const char *string, size_t len, unsigned radix)
As per @code{string->number} above, but taking a C string, as pointer
and length.  The string characters should be in the current locale
encoding (@code{locale} in the name refers only to that, there's no
locale-dependent parsing).
@end deftypefn


@node Complex
@subsubsection Complex Number Operations
@rnindex make-rectangular
@rnindex make-polar
@rnindex real-part
@rnindex imag-part
@rnindex magnitude
@rnindex angle

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} make-rectangular real imaginary
@deffnx {C Function} scm_make_rectangular (real, imaginary)
Return a complex number constructed of the given @var{real} and
@var{imaginary} parts.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} make-polar x y
@deffnx {C Function} scm_make_polar (x, y)
@cindex polar form
Return the complex number @var{x} * e^(i * @var{y}).
@end deffn

@c begin (texi-doc-string "guile" "real-part")
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} real-part z
@deffnx {C Function} scm_real_part (z)
Return the real part of the number @var{z}.
@end deffn

@c begin (texi-doc-string "guile" "imag-part")
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} imag-part z
@deffnx {C Function} scm_imag_part (z)
Return the imaginary part of the number @var{z}.
@end deffn

@c begin (texi-doc-string "guile" "magnitude")
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} magnitude z
@deffnx {C Function} scm_magnitude (z)
Return the magnitude of the number @var{z}. This is the same as
@code{abs} for real arguments, but also allows complex numbers.
@end deffn

@c begin (texi-doc-string "guile" "angle")
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} angle z
@deffnx {C Function} scm_angle (z)
Return the angle of the complex number @var{z}.
@end deffn

@deftypefn  {C Function} SCM scm_c_make_rectangular (double re, double im)
@deftypefnx {C Function} SCM scm_c_make_polar (double x, double y)
Like @code{scm_make_rectangular} or @code{scm_make_polar},
respectively, but these functions take @code{double}s as their
arguments.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn  {C Function} double scm_c_real_part (z)
@deftypefnx {C Function} double scm_c_imag_part (z)
Returns the real or imaginary part of @var{z} as a @code{double}.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn  {C Function} double scm_c_magnitude (z)
@deftypefnx {C Function} double scm_c_angle (z)
Returns the magnitude or angle of @var{z} as a @code{double}.
@end deftypefn


@node Arithmetic
@subsubsection Arithmetic Functions
@rnindex max
@rnindex min
@rnindex +
@rnindex *
@rnindex -
@rnindex /
@findex 1+
@findex 1-
@rnindex abs
@rnindex floor
@rnindex ceiling
@rnindex truncate
@rnindex round

The C arithmetic functions below always takes two arguments, while the
Scheme functions can take an arbitrary number.  When you need to
invoke them with just one argument, for example to compute the
equivalent od @code{(- x)}, pass @code{SCM_UNDEFINED} as the second
one: @code{scm_difference (x, SCM_UNDEFINED)}.

@c begin (texi-doc-string "guile" "+")
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} + z1 @dots{}
@deffnx {C Function} scm_sum (z1, z2)
Return the sum of all parameter values.  Return 0 if called without any
parameters.
@end deffn

@c begin (texi-doc-string "guile" "-")
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} - z1 z2 @dots{}
@deffnx {C Function} scm_difference (z1, z2)
If called with one argument @var{z1}, -@var{z1} is returned. Otherwise
the sum of all but the first argument are subtracted from the first
argument.
@end deffn

@c begin (texi-doc-string "guile" "*")
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} * z1 @dots{}
@deffnx {C Function} scm_product (z1, z2)
Return the product of all arguments.  If called without arguments, 1 is
returned.
@end deffn

@c begin (texi-doc-string "guile" "/")
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} / z1 z2 @dots{}
@deffnx {C Function} scm_divide (z1, z2)
Divide the first argument by the product of the remaining arguments.  If
called with one argument @var{z1}, 1/@var{z1} is returned.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} 1+ z
@deffnx {C Function} scm_oneplus (z)
Return @math{@var{z} + 1}.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} 1- z
@deffnx {C function} scm_oneminus (z)
Return @math{@var{z} - 1}.
@end deffn

@c begin (texi-doc-string "guile" "abs")
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} abs x
@deffnx {C Function} scm_abs (x)
Return the absolute value of @var{x}.

@var{x} must be a number with zero imaginary part.  To calculate the
magnitude of a complex number, use @code{magnitude} instead.
@end deffn

@c begin (texi-doc-string "guile" "max")
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} max x1 x2 @dots{}
@deffnx {C Function} scm_max (x1, x2)
Return the maximum of all parameter values.
@end deffn

@c begin (texi-doc-string "guile" "min")
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} min x1 x2 @dots{}
@deffnx {C Function} scm_min (x1, x2)
Return the minimum of all parameter values.
@end deffn

@c begin (texi-doc-string "guile" "truncate")
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} truncate x
@deffnx {C Function} scm_truncate_number (x)
Round the inexact number @var{x} towards zero.
@end deffn

@c begin (texi-doc-string "guile" "round")
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} round x
@deffnx {C Function} scm_round_number (x)
Round the inexact number @var{x} to the nearest integer.  When exactly
halfway between two integers, round to the even one.
@end deffn

@c begin (texi-doc-string "guile" "floor")
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} floor x
@deffnx {C Function} scm_floor (x)
Round the number @var{x} towards minus infinity.
@end deffn

@c begin (texi-doc-string "guile" "ceiling")
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} ceiling x
@deffnx {C Function} scm_ceiling (x)
Round the number @var{x} towards infinity.
@end deffn

@deftypefn  {C Function} double scm_c_truncate (double x)
@deftypefnx {C Function} double scm_c_round (double x)
Like @code{scm_truncate_number} or @code{scm_round_number},
respectively, but these functions take and return @code{double}
values.
@end deftypefn

@node Scientific
@subsubsection Scientific Functions

The following procedures accept any kind of number as arguments,
including complex numbers.

@rnindex sqrt
@c begin (texi-doc-string "guile" "sqrt")
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} sqrt z
Return the square root of @var{z}.  Of the two possible roots
(positive and negative), the one with the a positive real part is
returned, or if that's zero then a positive imaginary part.  Thus,

@example
(sqrt 9.0)       @result{} 3.0
(sqrt -9.0)      @result{} 0.0+3.0i
(sqrt 1.0+1.0i)  @result{} 1.09868411346781+0.455089860562227i
(sqrt -1.0-1.0i) @result{} 0.455089860562227-1.09868411346781i
@end example
@end deffn

@rnindex expt
@c begin (texi-doc-string "guile" "expt")
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} expt z1 z2
Return @var{z1} raised to the power of @var{z2}.
@end deffn

@rnindex sin
@c begin (texi-doc-string "guile" "sin")
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} sin z
Return the sine of @var{z}.
@end deffn

@rnindex cos
@c begin (texi-doc-string "guile" "cos")
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} cos z
Return the cosine of @var{z}.
@end deffn

@rnindex tan
@c begin (texi-doc-string "guile" "tan")
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} tan z
Return the tangent of @var{z}.
@end deffn

@rnindex asin
@c begin (texi-doc-string "guile" "asin")
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} asin z
Return the arcsine of @var{z}.
@end deffn

@rnindex acos
@c begin (texi-doc-string "guile" "acos")
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} acos z
Return the arccosine of @var{z}.
@end deffn

@rnindex atan
@c begin (texi-doc-string "guile" "atan")
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} atan z
@deffnx {Scheme Procedure} atan y x
Return the arctangent of @var{z}, or of @math{@var{y}/@var{x}}.
@end deffn

@rnindex exp
@c begin (texi-doc-string "guile" "exp")
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} exp z
Return e to the power of @var{z}, where e is the base of natural
logarithms (2.71828@dots{}).
@end deffn

@rnindex log
@c begin (texi-doc-string "guile" "log")
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} log z
Return the natural logarithm of @var{z}.
@end deffn

@c begin (texi-doc-string "guile" "log10")
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} log10 z
Return the base 10 logarithm of @var{z}.
@end deffn

@c begin (texi-doc-string "guile" "sinh")
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} sinh z
Return the hyperbolic sine of @var{z}.
@end deffn

@c begin (texi-doc-string "guile" "cosh")
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} cosh z
Return the hyperbolic cosine of @var{z}.
@end deffn

@c begin (texi-doc-string "guile" "tanh")
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} tanh z
Return the hyperbolic tangent of @var{z}.
@end deffn

@c begin (texi-doc-string "guile" "asinh")
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} asinh z
Return the hyperbolic arcsine of @var{z}.
@end deffn

@c begin (texi-doc-string "guile" "acosh")
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} acosh z
Return the hyperbolic arccosine of @var{z}.
@end deffn

@c begin (texi-doc-string "guile" "atanh")
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} atanh z
Return the hyperbolic arctangent of @var{z}.
@end deffn


@node Bitwise Operations
@subsubsection Bitwise Operations

For the following bitwise functions, negative numbers are treated as
infinite precision twos-complements.  For instance @math{-6} is bits
@math{@dots{}111010}, with infinitely many ones on the left.  It can
be seen that adding 6 (binary 110) to such a bit pattern gives all
zeros.

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} logand n1 n2 @dots{}
@deffnx {C Function} scm_logand (n1, n2)
Return the bitwise @sc{and} of the integer arguments.

@lisp
(logand) @result{} -1
(logand 7) @result{} 7
(logand #b111 #b011 #b001) @result{} 1
@end lisp
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} logior n1 n2 @dots{}
@deffnx {C Function} scm_logior (n1, n2)
Return the bitwise @sc{or} of the integer arguments.

@lisp
(logior) @result{} 0
(logior 7) @result{} 7
(logior #b000 #b001 #b011) @result{} 3
@end lisp
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} logxor n1 n2 @dots{}
@deffnx {C Function} scm_loxor (n1, n2)
Return the bitwise @sc{xor} of the integer arguments.  A bit is
set in the result if it is set in an odd number of arguments.

@lisp
(logxor) @result{} 0
(logxor 7) @result{} 7
(logxor #b000 #b001 #b011) @result{} 2
(logxor #b000 #b001 #b011 #b011) @result{} 1
@end lisp
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} lognot n
@deffnx {C Function} scm_lognot (n)
Return the integer which is the ones-complement of the integer
argument, ie.@: each 0 bit is changed to 1 and each 1 bit to 0.

@lisp
(number->string (lognot #b10000000) 2)
   @result{} "-10000001"
(number->string (lognot #b0) 2)
   @result{} "-1"
@end lisp
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} logtest j k
@deffnx {C Function} scm_logtest (j, k)
Test whether @var{j} and @var{k} have any 1 bits in common.  This is
equivalent to @code{(not (zero? (logand j k)))}, but without actually
calculating the @code{logand}, just testing for non-zero.

@lisp
(logtest #b0100 #b1011) @result{} #f
(logtest #b0100 #b0111) @result{} #t
@end lisp
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} logbit? index j
@deffnx {C Function} scm_logbit_p (index, j)
Test whether bit number @var{index} in @var{j} is set.  @var{index}
starts from 0 for the least significant bit.

@lisp
(logbit? 0 #b1101) @result{} #t
(logbit? 1 #b1101) @result{} #f
(logbit? 2 #b1101) @result{} #t
(logbit? 3 #b1101) @result{} #t
(logbit? 4 #b1101) @result{} #f
@end lisp
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} ash n cnt
@deffnx {C Function} scm_ash (n, cnt)
Return @var{n} shifted left by @var{cnt} bits, or shifted right if
@var{cnt} is negative.  This is an ``arithmetic'' shift.

This is effectively a multiplication by @m{2^{cnt}, 2^@var{cnt}}, and
when @var{cnt} is negative it's a division, rounded towards negative
infinity.  (Note that this is not the same rounding as @code{quotient}
does.)

With @var{n} viewed as an infinite precision twos complement,
@code{ash} means a left shift introducing zero bits, or a right shift
dropping bits.

@lisp
(number->string (ash #b1 3) 2)     @result{} "1000"
(number->string (ash #b1010 -1) 2) @result{} "101"

;; -23 is bits ...11101001, -6 is bits ...111010
(ash -23 -2) @result{} -6
@end lisp
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} logcount n
@deffnx {C Function} scm_logcount (n)
Return the number of bits in integer @var{n}.  If @var{n} is
positive, the 1-bits in its binary representation are counted.
If negative, the 0-bits in its two's-complement binary
representation are counted.  If zero, 0 is returned.

@lisp
(logcount #b10101010)
   @result{} 4
(logcount 0)
   @result{} 0
(logcount -2)
   @result{} 1
@end lisp
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} integer-length n
@deffnx {C Function} scm_integer_length (n)
Return the number of bits necessary to represent @var{n}.

For positive @var{n} this is how many bits to the most significant one
bit.  For negative @var{n} it's how many bits to the most significant
zero bit in twos complement form.

@lisp
(integer-length #b10101010) @result{} 8
(integer-length #b1111)     @result{} 4
(integer-length 0)          @result{} 0
(integer-length -1)         @result{} 0
(integer-length -256)       @result{} 8
(integer-length -257)       @result{} 9
@end lisp
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} integer-expt n k
@deffnx {C Function} scm_integer_expt (n, k)
Return @var{n} raised to the power @var{k}.  @var{k} must be an exact
integer, @var{n} can be any number.

Negative @var{k} is supported, and results in @m{1/n^|k|, 1/n^abs(k)}
in the usual way.  @math{@var{n}^0} is 1, as usual, and that includes
@math{0^0} is 1.

@lisp
(integer-expt 2 5)   @result{} 32
(integer-expt -3 3)  @result{} -27
(integer-expt 5 -3)  @result{} 1/125
(integer-expt 0 0)   @result{} 1
@end lisp
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} bit-extract n start end
@deffnx {C Function} scm_bit_extract (n, start, end)
Return the integer composed of the @var{start} (inclusive)
through @var{end} (exclusive) bits of @var{n}.  The
@var{start}th bit becomes the 0-th bit in the result.

@lisp
(number->string (bit-extract #b1101101010 0 4) 2)
   @result{} "1010"
(number->string (bit-extract #b1101101010 4 9) 2)
   @result{} "10110"
@end lisp
@end deffn


@node Random
@subsubsection Random Number Generation

Pseudo-random numbers are generated from a random state object, which
can be created with @code{seed->random-state}.  The @var{state}
parameter to the various functions below is optional, it defaults to
the state object in the @code{*random-state*} variable.

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} copy-random-state [state]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_copy_random_state (state)
Return a copy of the random state @var{state}.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} random n [state]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_random (n, state)
Return a number in [0, @var{n}).

Accepts a positive integer or real n and returns a
number of the same type between zero (inclusive) and
@var{n} (exclusive). The values returned have a uniform
distribution.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} random:exp [state]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_random_exp (state)
Return an inexact real in an exponential distribution with mean
1.  For an exponential distribution with mean @var{u} use @code{(*
@var{u} (random:exp))}.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} random:hollow-sphere! vect [state]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_random_hollow_sphere_x (vect, state)
Fills @var{vect} with inexact real random numbers the sum of whose
squares is equal to 1.0.  Thinking of @var{vect} as coordinates in
space of dimension @var{n} @math{=} @code{(vector-length @var{vect})},
the coordinates are uniformly distributed over the surface of the unit
n-sphere.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} random:normal [state]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_random_normal (state)
Return an inexact real in a normal distribution.  The distribution
used has mean 0 and standard deviation 1.  For a normal distribution
with mean @var{m} and standard deviation @var{d} use @code{(+ @var{m}
(* @var{d} (random:normal)))}.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} random:normal-vector! vect [state]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_random_normal_vector_x (vect, state)
Fills @var{vect} with inexact real random numbers that are
independent and standard normally distributed
(i.e., with mean 0 and variance 1).
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} random:solid-sphere! vect [state]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_random_solid_sphere_x (vect, state)
Fills @var{vect} with inexact real random numbers the sum of whose
squares is less than 1.0.  Thinking of @var{vect} as coordinates in
space of dimension @var{n} @math{=} @code{(vector-length @var{vect})},
the coordinates are uniformly distributed within the unit
@var{n}-sphere.
@c FIXME: What does this mean, particularly the n-sphere part?
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} random:uniform [state]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_random_uniform (state)
Return a uniformly distributed inexact real random number in
[0,1).
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} seed->random-state seed
@deffnx {C Function} scm_seed_to_random_state (seed)
Return a new random state using @var{seed}.
@end deffn

@defvar *random-state*
The global random state used by the above functions when the
@var{state} parameter is not given.
@end defvar

Note that the initial value of @code{*random-state*} is the same every
time Guile starts up.  Therefore, if you don't pass a @var{state}
parameter to the above procedures, and you don't set
@code{*random-state*} to @code{(seed->random-state your-seed)}, where
@code{your-seed} is something that @emph{isn't} the same every time,
you'll get the same sequence of ``random'' numbers on every run.

For example, unless the relevant source code has changed, @code{(map
random (cdr (iota 30)))}, if the first use of random numbers since
Guile started up, will always give:

@lisp
(map random (cdr (iota 19)))
@result{}
(0 1 1 2 2 2 1 2 6 7 10 0 5 3 12 5 5 12)
@end lisp

To use the time of day as the random seed, you can use code like this:

@lisp
(let ((time (gettimeofday)))
  (set! *random-state*
        (seed->random-state (+ (car time)
                               (cdr time)))))
@end lisp

@noindent
And then (depending on the time of day, of course):

@lisp
(map random (cdr (iota 19)))
@result{}
(0 0 1 0 2 4 5 4 5 5 9 3 10 1 8 3 14 17)
@end lisp

For security applications, such as password generation, you should use
more bits of seed.  Otherwise an open source password generator could
be attacked by guessing the seed@dots{} but that's a subject for
another manual.


@node Characters
@subsection Characters
@tpindex Characters

In Scheme, there is a data type to describe a single character.  

Defining what exactly a character @emph{is} can be more complicated
than it seems.  Guile follows the advice of R6RS and uses The Unicode
Standard to help define what a character is.  So, for Guile, a
character is anything in the Unicode Character Database.

@cindex code point
@cindex Unicode code point

The Unicode Character Database is basically a table of characters
indexed using integers called 'code points'.  Valid code points are in
the ranges 0 to @code{#xD7FF} inclusive or @code{#xE000} to
@code{#x10FFFF} inclusive, which is about 1.1 million code points.

@cindex designated code point
@cindex code point, designated

Any code point that has been assigned to a character or that has
otherwise been given a meaning by Unicode is called a 'designated code
point'.  Most of the designated code points, about 200,000 of them,
indicate characters, accents or other combining marks that modify
other characters, symbols, whitespace, and control characters.  Some
are not characters but indicators that suggest how to format or
display neighboring characters.

@cindex reserved code point
@cindex code point, reserved

If a code point is not a designated code point -- if it has not been
assigned to a character by The Unicode Standard -- it is a 'reserved
code point', meaning that they are reserved for future use.  Most of
the code points, about 800,000, are 'reserved code points'.

By convention, a Unicode code point is written as
``U+XXXX'' where ``XXXX'' is a hexadecimal number.  Please note that
this convenient notation is not valid code.  Guile does not interpret
``U+XXXX'' as a character.

In Scheme, a character literal is written as @code{#\@var{name}} where
@var{name} is the name of the character that you want.  Printable
characters have their usual single character name; for example,
@code{#\a} is a lower case @code{a}.  

Some of the code points are 'combining characters' that are not meant
to be printed by themselves but are instead meant to modify the
appearance of the previous character.  For combining characters, an
alternate form of the character literal is @code{#\} followed by
U+25CC (a small, dotted circle), followed by the combining character.
This allows the combining character to be drawn on the circle, not on
the backslash of @code{#\}.

Many of the non-printing characters, such as whitespace characters and
control characters, also have names.

The most commonly used non-printing characters are space and
newline.  Their character names are @code{#\space} and
@code{#\newline}.  There are also names for all of the ``C0 control
characters'' (those with code points below 32).  The following table
describes the names for each character.

@multitable @columnfractions .25 .25 .25 .25
@item 0 = @code{#\nul}
 @tab 1 = @code{#\soh}
 @tab 2 = @code{#\stx}
 @tab 3 = @code{#\etx}
@item 4 = @code{#\eot}
 @tab 5 = @code{#\enq}
 @tab 6 = @code{#\ack}
 @tab 7 = @code{#\bel}
@item 8 = @code{#\bs}
 @tab 9 = @code{#\ht}
 @tab 10 = @code{#\lf} 
 @tab 11 = @code{#\vt}
@item 12 = @code{#\ff}
 @tab 13 = @code{#\cr}
 @tab 14 = @code{#\so}
 @tab 15 = @code{#\si}
@item 16 = @code{#\dle}
 @tab 17 = @code{#\dc1}
 @tab 18 = @code{#\dc2}
 @tab 19 = @code{#\dc3}
@item 20 = @code{#\dc4}
 @tab 21 = @code{#\nak}
 @tab 22 = @code{#\syn}
 @tab 23 = @code{#\etb}
@item 24 = @code{#\can}
 @tab 25 = @code{#\em}
 @tab 26 = @code{#\sub}
 @tab 27 = @code{#\esc}
@item 28 = @code{#\fs}
 @tab 29 = @code{#\gs}
 @tab 30 = @code{#\rs}
 @tab 31 = @code{#\us}
@item 32 = @code{#\sp}
@end multitable

The ``delete'' character (code point U+007F) may be referred to with the
name @code{#\del}.

One might note that the space character has two names --
@code{#\space} and @code{#\sp} -- as does the newline character.
Several other non-printing characters have more than one name, for the
sake of compatibility with previous versions.

@multitable {@code{#\backspace}} {Preferred}
@item Alternate @tab Standard
@item @code{#\sp} @tab @code{#\space}
@item @code{#\nl} @tab @code{#\newline}
@item @code{#\lf} @tab @code{#\newline}
@item @code{#\tab} @tab @code{#\ht}
@item @code{#\backspace} @tab @code{#\bs}
@item @code{#\return} @tab @code{#\cr}
@item @code{#\page} @tab @code{#\ff}
@item @code{#\np} @tab @code{#\ff}
@item @code{#\null} @tab @code{#\nul}
@end multitable

Characters may also be written using their code point values.  They can
be written with as an octal number, such as @code{#\10} for
@code{#\bs} or @code{#\177} for @code{#\del}.

@rnindex char?
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} char? x
@deffnx {C Function} scm_char_p (x)
Return @code{#t} iff @var{x} is a character, else @code{#f}.
@end deffn

Fundamentally, the character comparison operations below are
numeric comparisons of the character's code points.

@rnindex char=?
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} char=? x y
Return @code{#t} iff code point of @var{x} is equal to the code point
of @var{y}, else @code{#f}.
@end deffn

@rnindex char<?
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} char<? x y
Return @code{#t} iff the code point of @var{x} is less than the code
point of @var{y}, else @code{#f}.
@end deffn

@rnindex char<=?
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} char<=? x y
Return @code{#t} iff the code point of @var{x} is less than or equal
to the code point of @var{y}, else @code{#f}.
@end deffn

@rnindex char>?
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} char>? x y
Return @code{#t} iff the code point of @var{x} is greater than the
code point of @var{y}, else @code{#f}.
@end deffn

@rnindex char>=?
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} char>=? x y
Return @code{#t} iff the code point of @var{x} is greater than or
equal to the code point of @var{y}, else @code{#f}.
@end deffn

@cindex case folding

Case-insensitive character comparisons use @emph{Unicode case
folding}.  In case folding comparisons, if a character is lowercase
and has an uppercase form that can be expressed as a single character,
it is converted to uppercase before comparison.  All other characters
undergo no conversion before the comparison occurs.  This includes the
German sharp S (Eszett) which is not uppercased before conversion
because its uppercase form has two characters.  Unicode case folding
is language independent: it uses rules that are generally true, but,
it cannot cover all cases for all languages.

@rnindex char-ci=?
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} char-ci=? x y
Return @code{#t} iff the case-folded code point of @var{x} is the same
as the case-folded code point of @var{y}, else @code{#f}.
@end deffn

@rnindex char-ci<?
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} char-ci<? x y
Return @code{#t} iff the case-folded code point of @var{x} is less
than the case-folded code point of @var{y}, else @code{#f}.
@end deffn

@rnindex char-ci<=?
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} char-ci<=? x y
Return @code{#t} iff the case-folded code point of @var{x} is less
than or equal to the case-folded code point of @var{y}, else
@code{#f}.
@end deffn

@rnindex char-ci>?
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} char-ci>? x y
Return @code{#t} iff the case-folded code point of @var{x} is greater
than the case-folded code point of @var{y}, else @code{#f}.
@end deffn

@rnindex char-ci>=?
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} char-ci>=? x y
Return @code{#t} iff the case-folded code point of @var{x} is greater
than or equal to the case-folded code point of @var{y}, else
@code{#f}.
@end deffn

@rnindex char-alphabetic?
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} char-alphabetic? chr
@deffnx {C Function} scm_char_alphabetic_p (chr)
Return @code{#t} iff @var{chr} is alphabetic, else @code{#f}.
@end deffn

@rnindex char-numeric?
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} char-numeric? chr
@deffnx {C Function} scm_char_numeric_p (chr)
Return @code{#t} iff @var{chr} is numeric, else @code{#f}.
@end deffn

@rnindex char-whitespace?
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} char-whitespace? chr
@deffnx {C Function} scm_char_whitespace_p (chr)
Return @code{#t} iff @var{chr} is whitespace, else @code{#f}.
@end deffn

@rnindex char-upper-case?
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} char-upper-case? chr
@deffnx {C Function} scm_char_upper_case_p (chr)
Return @code{#t} iff @var{chr} is uppercase, else @code{#f}.
@end deffn

@rnindex char-lower-case?
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} char-lower-case? chr
@deffnx {C Function} scm_char_lower_case_p (chr)
Return @code{#t} iff @var{chr} is lowercase, else @code{#f}.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} char-is-both? chr
@deffnx {C Function} scm_char_is_both_p (chr)
Return @code{#t} iff @var{chr} is either uppercase or lowercase, else
@code{#f}.
@end deffn

@rnindex char->integer
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} char->integer chr
@deffnx {C Function} scm_char_to_integer (chr)
Return the code point of @var{chr}.
@end deffn

@rnindex integer->char
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} integer->char n
@deffnx {C Function} scm_integer_to_char (n)
Return the character that has code point @var{n}.  The integer @var{n}
must be a valid code point.  Valid code points are in the ranges 0 to
@code{#xD7FF} inclusive or @code{#xE000} to @code{#x10FFFF} inclusive.
@end deffn

@rnindex char-upcase
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} char-upcase chr
@deffnx {C Function} scm_char_upcase (chr)
Return the uppercase character version of @var{chr}.
@end deffn

@rnindex char-downcase
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} char-downcase chr
@deffnx {C Function} scm_char_downcase (chr)
Return the lowercase character version of @var{chr}.
@end deffn

@rnindex char-titlecase
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} char-titlecase chr
@deffnx {C Function} scm_char_titlecase (chr)
Return the titlecase character version of @var{chr} if one exists;
otherwise return the uppercase version.  

For most characters these will be the same, but the Unicode Standard 
includes certain digraph compatibility characters, such as @code{U+01F3}
``dz'', for which the uppercase and titlecase characters are different 
(@code{U+01F1} ``DZ'' and @code{U+01F2} ``Dz'' in this case, 
respectively).
@end deffn

@node Character Sets
@subsection Character Sets

The features described in this section correspond directly to SRFI-14.

The data type @dfn{charset} implements sets of characters
(@pxref{Characters}).  Because the internal representation of
character sets is not visible to the user, a lot of procedures for
handling them are provided.

Character sets can be created, extended, tested for the membership of a
characters and be compared to other character sets.

@menu
* Character Set Predicates/Comparison::
* Iterating Over Character Sets::  Enumerate charset elements.
* Creating Character Sets::        Making new charsets.
* Querying Character Sets::        Test charsets for membership etc.
* Character-Set Algebra::          Calculating new charsets.
* Standard Character Sets::        Variables containing predefined charsets.
@end menu

@node Character Set Predicates/Comparison
@subsubsection Character Set Predicates/Comparison

Use these procedures for testing whether an object is a character set,
or whether several character sets are equal or subsets of each other.
@code{char-set-hash} can be used for calculating a hash value, maybe for
usage in fast lookup procedures.

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} char-set? obj
@deffnx {C Function} scm_char_set_p (obj)
Return @code{#t} if @var{obj} is a character set, @code{#f}
otherwise.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} char-set= . char_sets
@deffnx {C Function} scm_char_set_eq (char_sets)
Return @code{#t} if all given character sets are equal.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} char-set<= . char_sets
@deffnx {C Function} scm_char_set_leq (char_sets)
Return @code{#t} if every character set @var{cs}i is a subset
of character set @var{cs}i+1.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} char-set-hash cs [bound]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_char_set_hash (cs, bound)
Compute a hash value for the character set @var{cs}.  If
@var{bound} is given and non-zero, it restricts the
returned value to the range 0 @dots{} @var{bound - 1}.
@end deffn

@c ===================================================================

@node Iterating Over Character Sets
@subsubsection Iterating Over Character Sets

Character set cursors are a means for iterating over the members of a
character sets.  After creating a character set cursor with
@code{char-set-cursor}, a cursor can be dereferenced with
@code{char-set-ref}, advanced to the next member with
@code{char-set-cursor-next}.  Whether a cursor has passed past the last
element of the set can be checked with @code{end-of-char-set?}.

Additionally, mapping and (un-)folding procedures for character sets are
provided.

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} char-set-cursor cs
@deffnx {C Function} scm_char_set_cursor (cs)
Return a cursor into the character set @var{cs}.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} char-set-ref cs cursor
@deffnx {C Function} scm_char_set_ref (cs, cursor)
Return the character at the current cursor position
@var{cursor} in the character set @var{cs}.  It is an error to
pass a cursor for which @code{end-of-char-set?} returns true.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} char-set-cursor-next cs cursor
@deffnx {C Function} scm_char_set_cursor_next (cs, cursor)
Advance the character set cursor @var{cursor} to the next
character in the character set @var{cs}.  It is an error if the
cursor given satisfies @code{end-of-char-set?}.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} end-of-char-set? cursor
@deffnx {C Function} scm_end_of_char_set_p (cursor)
Return @code{#t} if @var{cursor} has reached the end of a
character set, @code{#f} otherwise.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} char-set-fold kons knil cs
@deffnx {C Function} scm_char_set_fold (kons, knil, cs)
Fold the procedure @var{kons} over the character set @var{cs},
initializing it with @var{knil}.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} char-set-unfold p f g seed [base_cs]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_char_set_unfold (p, f, g, seed, base_cs)
This is a fundamental constructor for character sets.
@itemize @bullet
@item @var{g} is used to generate a series of ``seed'' values
from the initial seed: @var{seed}, (@var{g} @var{seed}),
(@var{g}^2 @var{seed}), (@var{g}^3 @var{seed}), @dots{}
@item @var{p} tells us when to stop -- when it returns true
when applied to one of the seed values.
@item @var{f} maps each seed value to a character. These
characters are added to the base character set @var{base_cs} to
form the result; @var{base_cs} defaults to the empty set.
@end itemize
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} char-set-unfold! p f g seed base_cs
@deffnx {C Function} scm_char_set_unfold_x (p, f, g, seed, base_cs)
This is a fundamental constructor for character sets.
@itemize @bullet
@item @var{g} is used to generate a series of ``seed'' values
from the initial seed: @var{seed}, (@var{g} @var{seed}),
(@var{g}^2 @var{seed}), (@var{g}^3 @var{seed}), @dots{}
@item @var{p} tells us when to stop -- when it returns true
when applied to one of the seed values.
@item @var{f} maps each seed value to a character. These
characters are added to the base character set @var{base_cs} to
form the result; @var{base_cs} defaults to the empty set.
@end itemize
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} char-set-for-each proc cs
@deffnx {C Function} scm_char_set_for_each (proc, cs)
Apply @var{proc} to every character in the character set
@var{cs}.  The return value is not specified.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} char-set-map proc cs
@deffnx {C Function} scm_char_set_map (proc, cs)
Map the procedure @var{proc} over every character in @var{cs}.
@var{proc} must be a character -> character procedure.
@end deffn

@c ===================================================================

@node Creating Character Sets
@subsubsection Creating Character Sets

New character sets are produced with these procedures.

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} char-set-copy cs
@deffnx {C Function} scm_char_set_copy (cs)
Return a newly allocated character set containing all
characters in @var{cs}.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} char-set . rest
@deffnx {C Function} scm_char_set (rest)
Return a character set containing all given characters.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} list->char-set list [base_cs]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_list_to_char_set (list, base_cs)
Convert the character list @var{list} to a character set.  If
the character set @var{base_cs} is given, the character in this
set are also included in the result.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} list->char-set! list base_cs
@deffnx {C Function} scm_list_to_char_set_x (list, base_cs)
Convert the character list @var{list} to a character set.  The
characters are added to @var{base_cs} and @var{base_cs} is
returned.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string->char-set str [base_cs]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_to_char_set (str, base_cs)
Convert the string @var{str} to a character set.  If the
character set @var{base_cs} is given, the characters in this
set are also included in the result.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string->char-set! str base_cs
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_to_char_set_x (str, base_cs)
Convert the string @var{str} to a character set.  The
characters from the string are added to @var{base_cs}, and
@var{base_cs} is returned.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} char-set-filter pred cs [base_cs]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_char_set_filter (pred, cs, base_cs)
Return a character set containing every character from @var{cs}
so that it satisfies @var{pred}.  If provided, the characters
from @var{base_cs} are added to the result.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} char-set-filter! pred cs base_cs
@deffnx {C Function} scm_char_set_filter_x (pred, cs, base_cs)
Return a character set containing every character from @var{cs}
so that it satisfies @var{pred}.  The characters are added to
@var{base_cs} and @var{base_cs} is returned.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} ucs-range->char-set lower upper [error [base_cs]]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_ucs_range_to_char_set (lower, upper, error, base_cs)
Return a character set containing all characters whose
character codes lie in the half-open range
[@var{lower},@var{upper}).

If @var{error} is a true value, an error is signalled if the
specified range contains characters which are not contained in
the implemented character range.  If @var{error} is @code{#f},
these characters are silently left out of the resulting
character set.

The characters in @var{base_cs} are added to the result, if
given.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} ucs-range->char-set! lower upper error base_cs
@deffnx {C Function} scm_ucs_range_to_char_set_x (lower, upper, error, base_cs)
Return a character set containing all characters whose
character codes lie in the half-open range
[@var{lower},@var{upper}).

If @var{error} is a true value, an error is signalled if the
specified range contains characters which are not contained in
the implemented character range.  If @var{error} is @code{#f},
these characters are silently left out of the resulting
character set.

The characters are added to @var{base_cs} and @var{base_cs} is
returned.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} ->char-set x
@deffnx {C Function} scm_to_char_set (x)
Coerces x into a char-set. @var{x} may be a string, character or
char-set. A string is converted to the set of its constituent
characters; a character is converted to a singleton set; a char-set is
returned as-is.
@end deffn

@c ===================================================================

@node Querying Character Sets
@subsubsection Querying Character Sets

Access the elements and other information of a character set with these
procedures.

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} %char-set-dump cs
Returns an association list containing debugging information
for @var{cs}. The association list has the following entries.
@table @code
@item char-set
The char-set itself
@item len
The number of groups of contiguous code points the char-set
contains
@item ranges
A list of lists where each sublist is a range of code points
and their associated characters
@end table
The return value of this function cannot be relied upon to be
consistent between versions of Guile and should not be used in code.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} char-set-size cs
@deffnx {C Function} scm_char_set_size (cs)
Return the number of elements in character set @var{cs}.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} char-set-count pred cs
@deffnx {C Function} scm_char_set_count (pred, cs)
Return the number of the elements int the character set
@var{cs} which satisfy the predicate @var{pred}.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} char-set->list cs
@deffnx {C Function} scm_char_set_to_list (cs)
Return a list containing the elements of the character set
@var{cs}.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} char-set->string cs
@deffnx {C Function} scm_char_set_to_string (cs)
Return a string containing the elements of the character set
@var{cs}.  The order in which the characters are placed in the
string is not defined.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} char-set-contains? cs ch
@deffnx {C Function} scm_char_set_contains_p (cs, ch)
Return @code{#t} iff the character @var{ch} is contained in the
character set @var{cs}.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} char-set-every pred cs
@deffnx {C Function} scm_char_set_every (pred, cs)
Return a true value if every character in the character set
@var{cs} satisfies the predicate @var{pred}.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} char-set-any pred cs
@deffnx {C Function} scm_char_set_any (pred, cs)
Return a true value if any character in the character set
@var{cs} satisfies the predicate @var{pred}.
@end deffn

@c ===================================================================

@node Character-Set Algebra
@subsubsection Character-Set Algebra

Character sets can be manipulated with the common set algebra operation,
such as union, complement, intersection etc.  All of these procedures
provide side-effecting variants, which modify their character set
argument(s).

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} char-set-adjoin cs . rest
@deffnx {C Function} scm_char_set_adjoin (cs, rest)
Add all character arguments to the first argument, which must
be a character set.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} char-set-delete cs . rest
@deffnx {C Function} scm_char_set_delete (cs, rest)
Delete all character arguments from the first argument, which
must be a character set.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} char-set-adjoin! cs . rest
@deffnx {C Function} scm_char_set_adjoin_x (cs, rest)
Add all character arguments to the first argument, which must
be a character set.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} char-set-delete! cs . rest
@deffnx {C Function} scm_char_set_delete_x (cs, rest)
Delete all character arguments from the first argument, which
must be a character set.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} char-set-complement cs
@deffnx {C Function} scm_char_set_complement (cs)
Return the complement of the character set @var{cs}.
@end deffn

Note that the complement of a character set is likely to contain many
reserved code points (code points that are not associated with
characters).  It may be helpful to modify the output of
@code{char-set-complement} by computing its intersection with the set
of designated code points, @code{char-set:designated}.

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} char-set-union . rest
@deffnx {C Function} scm_char_set_union (rest)
Return the union of all argument character sets.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} char-set-intersection . rest
@deffnx {C Function} scm_char_set_intersection (rest)
Return the intersection of all argument character sets.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} char-set-difference cs1 . rest
@deffnx {C Function} scm_char_set_difference (cs1, rest)
Return the difference of all argument character sets.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} char-set-xor . rest
@deffnx {C Function} scm_char_set_xor (rest)
Return the exclusive-or of all argument character sets.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} char-set-diff+intersection cs1 . rest
@deffnx {C Function} scm_char_set_diff_plus_intersection (cs1, rest)
Return the difference and the intersection of all argument
character sets.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} char-set-complement! cs
@deffnx {C Function} scm_char_set_complement_x (cs)
Return the complement of the character set @var{cs}.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} char-set-union! cs1 . rest
@deffnx {C Function} scm_char_set_union_x (cs1, rest)
Return the union of all argument character sets.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} char-set-intersection! cs1 . rest
@deffnx {C Function} scm_char_set_intersection_x (cs1, rest)
Return the intersection of all argument character sets.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} char-set-difference! cs1 . rest
@deffnx {C Function} scm_char_set_difference_x (cs1, rest)
Return the difference of all argument character sets.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} char-set-xor! cs1 . rest
@deffnx {C Function} scm_char_set_xor_x (cs1, rest)
Return the exclusive-or of all argument character sets.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} char-set-diff+intersection! cs1 cs2 . rest
@deffnx {C Function} scm_char_set_diff_plus_intersection_x (cs1, cs2, rest)
Return the difference and the intersection of all argument
character sets.
@end deffn

@c ===================================================================

@node Standard Character Sets
@subsubsection Standard Character Sets

In order to make the use of the character set data type and procedures
useful, several predefined character set variables exist.

@cindex codeset
@cindex charset
@cindex locale

These character sets are locale independent and are not recomputed
upon a @code{setlocale} call.  They contain characters from the whole
range of Unicode code points. For instance, @code{char-set:letter}
contains about 94,000 characters.

@defvr {Scheme Variable} char-set:lower-case
@defvrx {C Variable} scm_char_set_lower_case
All lower-case characters.
@end defvr

@defvr {Scheme Variable} char-set:upper-case
@defvrx {C Variable} scm_char_set_upper_case
All upper-case characters.
@end defvr

@defvr {Scheme Variable} char-set:title-case
@defvrx {C Variable} scm_char_set_title_case
All single characters that function as if they were an upper-case
letter followed by a lower-case letter.
@end defvr

@defvr {Scheme Variable} char-set:letter
@defvrx {C Variable} scm_char_set_letter
All letters.  This includes @code{char-set:lower-case},
@code{char-set:upper-case}, @code{char-set:title-case}, and many
letters that have no case at all.  For example, Chinese and Japanese
characters typically have no concept of case.
@end defvr

@defvr {Scheme Variable} char-set:digit
@defvrx {C Variable} scm_char_set_digit
All digits.
@end defvr

@defvr {Scheme Variable} char-set:letter+digit
@defvrx {C Variable} scm_char_set_letter_and_digit
The union of @code{char-set:letter} and @code{char-set:digit}.
@end defvr

@defvr {Scheme Variable} char-set:graphic
@defvrx {C Variable} scm_char_set_graphic
All characters which would put ink on the paper.
@end defvr

@defvr {Scheme Variable} char-set:printing
@defvrx {C Variable} scm_char_set_printing
The union of @code{char-set:graphic} and @code{char-set:whitespace}.
@end defvr

@defvr {Scheme Variable} char-set:whitespace
@defvrx {C Variable} scm_char_set_whitespace
All whitespace characters.
@end defvr

@defvr {Scheme Variable} char-set:blank
@defvrx {C Variable} scm_char_set_blank
All horizontal whitespace characters, which notably includes
@code{#\space} and @code{#\tab}.
@end defvr

@defvr {Scheme Variable} char-set:iso-control
@defvrx {C Variable} scm_char_set_iso_control
The ISO control characters are the C0 control characters (U+0000 to
U+001F), delete (U+007F), and the C1 control characters (U+0080 to
U+009F).
@end defvr

@defvr {Scheme Variable} char-set:punctuation
@defvrx {C Variable} scm_char_set_punctuation
All punctuation characters, such as the characters
@code{!"#%&'()*,-./:;?@@[\\]_@{@}}
@end defvr

@defvr {Scheme Variable} char-set:symbol
@defvrx {C Variable} scm_char_set_symbol
All symbol characters, such as the characters @code{$+<=>^`|~}.
@end defvr

@defvr {Scheme Variable} char-set:hex-digit
@defvrx {C Variable} scm_char_set_hex_digit
The hexadecimal digits @code{0123456789abcdefABCDEF}.
@end defvr

@defvr {Scheme Variable} char-set:ascii
@defvrx {C Variable} scm_char_set_ascii
All ASCII characters.
@end defvr

@defvr {Scheme Variable} char-set:empty
@defvrx {C Variable} scm_char_set_empty
The empty character set.
@end defvr

@defvr {Scheme Variable} char-set:designated
@defvrx {C Variable} scm_char_set_designated
This character set contains all designated code points.  This includes
all the code points to which Unicode has assigned a character or other
meaning.
@end defvr

@defvr {Scheme Variable} char-set:full
@defvrx {C Variable} scm_char_set_full
This character set contains all possible code points.  This includes
both designated and reserved code points.
@end defvr

@node Strings
@subsection Strings
@tpindex Strings

Strings are fixed-length sequences of characters.  They can be created
by calling constructor procedures, but they can also literally get
entered at the @acronym{REPL} or in Scheme source files.

@c Guile provides a rich set of string processing procedures, because text
@c handling is very important when Guile is used as a scripting language.

Strings always carry the information about how many characters they are
composed of with them, so there is no special end-of-string character,
like in C.  That means that Scheme strings can contain any character,
even the @samp{#\nul} character @samp{\0}.

To use strings efficiently, you need to know a bit about how Guile
implements them.  In Guile, a string consists of two parts, a head and
the actual memory where the characters are stored.  When a string (or
a substring of it) is copied, only a new head gets created, the memory
is usually not copied.  The two heads start out pointing to the same
memory.

When one of these two strings is modified, as with @code{string-set!},
their common memory does get copied so that each string has its own
memory and modifying one does not accidentally modify the other as well.
Thus, Guile's strings are `copy on write'; the actual copying of their
memory is delayed until one string is written to.

This implementation makes functions like @code{substring} very
efficient in the common case that no modifications are done to the
involved strings.

If you do know that your strings are getting modified right away, you
can use @code{substring/copy} instead of @code{substring}.  This
function performs the copy immediately at the time of creation.  This
is more efficient, especially in a multi-threaded program.  Also,
@code{substring/copy} can avoid the problem that a short substring
holds on to the memory of a very large original string that could
otherwise be recycled.

If you want to avoid the copy altogether, so that modifications of one
string show up in the other, you can use @code{substring/shared}.  The
strings created by this procedure are called @dfn{mutation sharing
substrings} since the substring and the original string share
modifications to each other.

If you want to prevent modifications, use @code{substring/read-only}.

Guile provides all procedures of SRFI-13 and a few more.

@menu
* String Syntax::                   Read syntax for strings.
* String Predicates::               Testing strings for certain properties.
* String Constructors::             Creating new string objects.
* List/String Conversion::          Converting from/to lists of characters.
* String Selection::                Select portions from strings.
* String Modification::             Modify parts or whole strings.
* String Comparison::               Lexicographic ordering predicates.
* String Searching::                Searching in strings.
* Alphabetic Case Mapping::         Convert the alphabetic case of strings.
* Reversing and Appending Strings:: Appending strings to form a new string.
* Mapping Folding and Unfolding::   Iterating over strings.
* Miscellaneous String Operations:: Replicating, insertion, parsing, ...
* Conversion to/from C::       
@end menu

@node String Syntax
@subsubsection String Read Syntax

@c  In the following @code is used to get a good font in TeX etc, but
@c  is omitted for Info format, so as not to risk any confusion over
@c  whether surrounding ` ' quotes are part of the escape or are
@c  special in a string (they're not).

The read syntax for strings is an arbitrarily long sequence of
characters enclosed in double quotes (@nicode{"}).

Backslash is an escape character and can be used to insert the
following special characters.  @nicode{\"} and @nicode{\\} are R5RS
standard, the rest are Guile extensions, notice they follow C string
syntax.

@table @asis
@item @nicode{\\}
Backslash character.

@item @nicode{\"}
Double quote character (an unescaped @nicode{"} is otherwise the end
of the string).

@item @nicode{\0}
NUL character (ASCII 0).

@item @nicode{\a}
Bell character (ASCII 7).

@item @nicode{\f}
Formfeed character (ASCII 12).

@item @nicode{\n}
Newline character (ASCII 10).

@item @nicode{\r}
Carriage return character (ASCII 13).

@item @nicode{\t}
Tab character (ASCII 9).

@item @nicode{\v}
Vertical tab character (ASCII 11).

@item @nicode{\xHH}
Character code given by two hexadecimal digits.  For example
@nicode{\x7f} for an ASCII DEL (127).

@item @nicode{\uHHHH}
Character code given by four hexadecimal digits.  For example
@nicode{\u0100} for a capital A with macron (U+0100).

@item @nicode{\UHHHHHH}
Character code given by six hexadecimal digits.  For example
@nicode{\U010402}.
@end table

@noindent
The following are examples of string literals:

@lisp
"foo"
"bar plonk"
"Hello World"
"\"Hi\", he said."
@end lisp


@node String Predicates
@subsubsection String Predicates

The following procedures can be used to check whether a given string
fulfills some specified property.

@rnindex string?
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string? obj
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_p (obj)
Return @code{#t} if @var{obj} is a string, else @code{#f}.
@end deffn

@deftypefn {C Function} int scm_is_string (SCM obj)
Returns @code{1} if @var{obj} is a string, @code{0} otherwise.
@end deftypefn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string-null? str
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_null_p (str)
Return @code{#t} if @var{str}'s length is zero, and
@code{#f} otherwise.
@lisp
(string-null? "")  @result{} #t
y                    @result{} "foo"
(string-null? y)     @result{} #f
@end lisp
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string-any char_pred s [start [end]]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_any (char_pred, s, start, end)
Check if @var{char_pred} is true for any character in string @var{s}.

@var{char_pred} can be a character to check for any equal to that, or
a character set (@pxref{Character Sets}) to check for any in that set,
or a predicate procedure to call.

For a procedure, calls @code{(@var{char_pred} c)} are made
successively on the characters from @var{start} to @var{end}.  If
@var{char_pred} returns true (ie.@: non-@code{#f}), @code{string-any}
stops and that return value is the return from @code{string-any}.  The
call on the last character (ie.@: at @math{@var{end}-1}), if that
point is reached, is a tail call.

If there are no characters in @var{s} (ie.@: @var{start} equals
@var{end}) then the return is @code{#f}.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string-every char_pred s [start [end]]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_every (char_pred, s, start, end)
Check if @var{char_pred} is true for every character in string
@var{s}.

@var{char_pred} can be a character to check for every character equal
to that, or a character set (@pxref{Character Sets}) to check for
every character being in that set, or a predicate procedure to call.

For a procedure, calls @code{(@var{char_pred} c)} are made
successively on the characters from @var{start} to @var{end}.  If
@var{char_pred} returns @code{#f}, @code{string-every} stops and
returns @code{#f}.  The call on the last character (ie.@: at
@math{@var{end}-1}), if that point is reached, is a tail call and the
return from that call is the return from @code{string-every}.

If there are no characters in @var{s} (ie.@: @var{start} equals
@var{end}) then the return is @code{#t}.
@end deffn

@node String Constructors
@subsubsection String Constructors

The string constructor procedures create new string objects, possibly
initializing them with some specified character data.  See also
@xref{String Selection}, for ways to create strings from existing
strings.

@c FIXME::martin: list->string belongs into `List/String Conversion'

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string char@dots{}
@rnindex string
Return a newly allocated string made from the given character
arguments.

@example
(string #\x #\y #\z) @result{} "xyz"
(string)             @result{} ""
@end example
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} list->string lst
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string (lst)
@rnindex list->string
Return a newly allocated string made from a list of characters.

@example
(list->string '(#\a #\b #\c)) @result{} "abc"
@end example
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} reverse-list->string lst
@deffnx {C Function} scm_reverse_list_to_string (lst)
Return a newly allocated string made from a list of characters, in
reverse order.

@example
(reverse-list->string '(#\a #\B #\c)) @result{} "cBa"
@end example
@end deffn

@rnindex make-string
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} make-string k [chr]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_make_string (k, chr)
Return a newly allocated string of
length @var{k}.  If @var{chr} is given, then all elements of
the string are initialized to @var{chr}, otherwise the contents
of the @var{string} are unspecified.
@end deffn

@deftypefn {C Function} SCM scm_c_make_string (size_t len, SCM chr)
Like @code{scm_make_string}, but expects the length as a
@code{size_t}.
@end deftypefn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string-tabulate proc len
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_tabulate (proc, len)
@var{proc} is an integer->char procedure.  Construct a string
of size @var{len} by applying @var{proc} to each index to
produce the corresponding string element.  The order in which
@var{proc} is applied to the indices is not specified.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string-join ls [delimiter [grammar]]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_join (ls, delimiter, grammar)
Append the string in the string list @var{ls}, using the string
@var{delim} as a delimiter between the elements of @var{ls}.
@var{grammar} is a symbol which specifies how the delimiter is
placed between the strings, and defaults to the symbol
@code{infix}.

@table @code
@item infix
Insert the separator between list elements.  An empty string
will produce an empty list.
@item string-infix
Like @code{infix}, but will raise an error if given the empty
list.
@item suffix
Insert the separator after every list element.
@item prefix
Insert the separator before each list element.
@end table
@end deffn

@node List/String Conversion
@subsubsection List/String conversion

When processing strings, it is often convenient to first convert them
into a list representation by using the procedure @code{string->list},
work with the resulting list, and then convert it back into a string.
These procedures are useful for similar tasks.

@rnindex string->list
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string->list str [start [end]]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_substring_to_list (str, start, end)
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_to_list (str)
Convert the string @var{str} into a list of characters.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string-split str chr
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_split (str, chr)
Split the string @var{str} into the a list of the substrings delimited
by appearances of the character @var{chr}.  Note that an empty substring
between separator characters will result in an empty string in the
result list.

@lisp
(string-split "root:x:0:0:root:/root:/bin/bash" #\:)
@result{}
("root" "x" "0" "0" "root" "/root" "/bin/bash")

(string-split "::" #\:)
@result{}
("" "" "")

(string-split "" #\:)
@result{}
("")
@end lisp
@end deffn


@node String Selection
@subsubsection String Selection

Portions of strings can be extracted by these procedures.
@code{string-ref} delivers individual characters whereas
@code{substring} can be used to extract substrings from longer strings.

@rnindex string-length
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string-length string
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_length (string)
Return the number of characters in @var{string}.
@end deffn

@deftypefn {C Function} size_t scm_c_string_length (SCM str)
Return the number of characters in @var{str} as a @code{size_t}.
@end deftypefn

@rnindex string-ref
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string-ref str k
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_ref (str, k)
Return character @var{k} of @var{str} using zero-origin
indexing. @var{k} must be a valid index of @var{str}.
@end deffn

@deftypefn {C Function} SCM scm_c_string_ref (SCM str, size_t k)
Return character @var{k} of @var{str} using zero-origin
indexing. @var{k} must be a valid index of @var{str}.
@end deftypefn

@rnindex string-copy
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string-copy str [start [end]]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_substring_copy (str, start, end)
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_copy (str)
Return a copy of the given string @var{str}.

The returned string shares storage with @var{str} initially, but it is
copied as soon as one of the two strings is modified.
@end deffn

@rnindex substring
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} substring str start [end]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_substring (str, start, end)
Return a new string formed from the characters
of @var{str} beginning with index @var{start} (inclusive) and
ending with index @var{end} (exclusive).
@var{str} must be a string, @var{start} and @var{end} must be
exact integers satisfying:

0 <= @var{start} <= @var{end} <= @code{(string-length @var{str})}.

The returned string shares storage with @var{str} initially, but it is
copied as soon as one of the two strings is modified.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} substring/shared str start [end]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_substring_shared (str, start, end)
Like @code{substring}, but the strings continue to share their storage
even if they are modified.  Thus, modifications to @var{str} show up
in the new string, and vice versa.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} substring/copy str start [end]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_substring_copy (str, start, end)
Like @code{substring}, but the storage for the new string is copied
immediately.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} substring/read-only str start [end]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_substring_read_only (str, start, end)
Like @code{substring}, but the resulting string can not be modified.
@end deffn

@deftypefn  {C Function} SCM scm_c_substring (SCM str, size_t start, size_t end)
@deftypefnx {C Function} SCM scm_c_substring_shared (SCM str, size_t start, size_t end)
@deftypefnx {C Function} SCM scm_c_substring_copy (SCM str, size_t start, size_t end)
@deftypefnx {C Function} SCM scm_c_substring_read_only (SCM str, size_t start, size_t end)
Like @code{scm_substring}, etc. but the bounds are given as a @code{size_t}.
@end deftypefn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string-take s n
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_take (s, n)
Return the @var{n} first characters of @var{s}.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string-drop s n
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_drop (s, n)
Return all but the first @var{n} characters of @var{s}.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string-take-right s n
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_take_right (s, n)
Return the @var{n} last characters of @var{s}.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string-drop-right s n
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_drop_right (s, n)
Return all but the last @var{n} characters of @var{s}.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string-pad s len [chr [start [end]]]
@deffnx {Scheme Procedure} string-pad-right s len [chr [start [end]]]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_pad (s, len, chr, start, end)
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_pad_right (s, len, chr, start, end)
Take characters @var{start} to @var{end} from the string @var{s} and
either pad with @var{char} or truncate them to give @var{len}
characters.

@code{string-pad} pads or truncates on the left, so for example

@example
(string-pad "x" 3)     @result{} "  x"
(string-pad "abcde" 3) @result{} "cde"
@end example

@code{string-pad-right} pads or truncates on the right, so for example

@example
(string-pad-right "x" 3)     @result{} "x  "
(string-pad-right "abcde" 3) @result{} "abc"
@end example
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string-trim s [char_pred [start [end]]]
@deffnx {Scheme Procedure} string-trim-right s [char_pred [start [end]]]
@deffnx {Scheme Procedure} string-trim-both s [char_pred [start [end]]]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_trim (s, char_pred, start, end)
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_trim_right (s, char_pred, start, end)
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_trim_both (s, char_pred, start, end)
Trim occurrences of @var{char_pred} from the ends of @var{s}.

@code{string-trim} trims @var{char_pred} characters from the left
(start) of the string, @code{string-trim-right} trims them from the
right (end) of the string, @code{string-trim-both} trims from both
ends.

@var{char_pred} can be a character, a character set, or a predicate
procedure to call on each character.  If @var{char_pred} is not given
the default is whitespace as per @code{char-set:whitespace}
(@pxref{Standard Character Sets}).

@example
(string-trim " x ")              @result{} "x "
(string-trim-right "banana" #\a) @result{} "banan"
(string-trim-both ".,xy:;" char-set:punctuation)
                  @result{} "xy"
(string-trim-both "xyzzy" (lambda (c)
                             (or (eqv? c #\x)
                                 (eqv? c #\y))))
                  @result{} "zz"
@end example
@end deffn

@node String Modification
@subsubsection String Modification

These procedures are for modifying strings in-place.  This means that the
result of the operation is not a new string; instead, the original string's
memory representation is modified.

@rnindex string-set!
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string-set! str k chr
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_set_x (str, k, chr)
Store @var{chr} in element @var{k} of @var{str} and return
an unspecified value. @var{k} must be a valid index of
@var{str}.
@end deffn

@deftypefn {C Function} void scm_c_string_set_x (SCM str, size_t k, SCM chr)
Like @code{scm_string_set_x}, but the index is given as a @code{size_t}.
@end deftypefn

@rnindex string-fill!
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string-fill! str chr [start [end]]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_substring_fill_x (str, chr, start, end)
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_fill_x (str, chr)
Stores @var{chr} in every element of the given @var{str} and
returns an unspecified value.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} substring-fill! str start end fill
@deffnx {C Function} scm_substring_fill_x (str, start, end, fill)
Change every character in @var{str} between @var{start} and
@var{end} to @var{fill}.

@lisp
(define y "abcdefg")
(substring-fill! y 1 3 #\r)
y
@result{} "arrdefg"
@end lisp
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} substring-move! str1 start1 end1 str2 start2
@deffnx {C Function} scm_substring_move_x (str1, start1, end1, str2, start2)
Copy the substring of @var{str1} bounded by @var{start1} and @var{end1}
into @var{str2} beginning at position @var{start2}.
@var{str1} and @var{str2} can be the same string.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string-copy! target tstart s [start [end]]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_copy_x (target, tstart, s, start, end)
Copy the sequence of characters from index range [@var{start},
@var{end}) in string @var{s} to string @var{target}, beginning
at index @var{tstart}.  The characters are copied left-to-right
or right-to-left as needed -- the copy is guaranteed to work,
even if @var{target} and @var{s} are the same string.  It is an
error if the copy operation runs off the end of the target
string.
@end deffn


@node String Comparison
@subsubsection String Comparison

The procedures in this section are similar to the character ordering
predicates (@pxref{Characters}), but are defined on character sequences.

The first set is specified in R5RS and has names that end in @code{?}.
The second set is specified in SRFI-13 and the names have not ending
@code{?}.  

The predicates ending in @code{-ci} ignore the character case
when comparing strings.  For now, case-insensitive comparison is done
using the R5RS rules, where every lower-case character that has a
single character upper-case form is converted to uppercase before
comparison.  See @xref{Text Collation, the @code{(ice-9
i18n)} module}, for locale-dependent string comparison.

@rnindex string=?
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string=? s1 s2
Lexicographic equality predicate; return @code{#t} if the two
strings are the same length and contain the same characters in
the same positions, otherwise return @code{#f}.

The procedure @code{string-ci=?} treats upper and lower case
letters as though they were the same character, but
@code{string=?} treats upper and lower case as distinct
characters.
@end deffn

@rnindex string<?
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string<? s1 s2
Lexicographic ordering predicate; return @code{#t} if @var{s1}
is lexicographically less than @var{s2}.
@end deffn

@rnindex string<=?
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string<=? s1 s2
Lexicographic ordering predicate; return @code{#t} if @var{s1}
is lexicographically less than or equal to @var{s2}.
@end deffn

@rnindex string>?
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string>? s1 s2
Lexicographic ordering predicate; return @code{#t} if @var{s1}
is lexicographically greater than @var{s2}.
@end deffn

@rnindex string>=?
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string>=? s1 s2
Lexicographic ordering predicate; return @code{#t} if @var{s1}
is lexicographically greater than or equal to @var{s2}.
@end deffn

@rnindex string-ci=?
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string-ci=? s1 s2
Case-insensitive string equality predicate; return @code{#t} if
the two strings are the same length and their component
characters match (ignoring case) at each position; otherwise
return @code{#f}.
@end deffn

@rnindex string-ci<?
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string-ci<? s1 s2
Case insensitive lexicographic ordering predicate; return
@code{#t} if @var{s1} is lexicographically less than @var{s2}
regardless of case.
@end deffn

@rnindex string<=?
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string-ci<=? s1 s2
Case insensitive lexicographic ordering predicate; return
@code{#t} if @var{s1} is lexicographically less than or equal
to @var{s2} regardless of case.
@end deffn

@rnindex string-ci>?
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string-ci>? s1 s2
Case insensitive lexicographic ordering predicate; return
@code{#t} if @var{s1} is lexicographically greater than
@var{s2} regardless of case.
@end deffn

@rnindex string-ci>=?
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string-ci>=? s1 s2
Case insensitive lexicographic ordering predicate; return
@code{#t} if @var{s1} is lexicographically greater than or
equal to @var{s2} regardless of case.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string-compare s1 s2 proc_lt proc_eq proc_gt [start1 [end1 [start2 [end2]]]]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_compare (s1, s2, proc_lt, proc_eq, proc_gt, start1, end1, start2, end2)
Apply @var{proc_lt}, @var{proc_eq}, @var{proc_gt} to the
mismatch index, depending upon whether @var{s1} is less than,
equal to, or greater than @var{s2}.  The mismatch index is the
largest index @var{i} such that for every 0 <= @var{j} <
@var{i}, @var{s1}[@var{j}] = @var{s2}[@var{j}] -- that is,
@var{i} is the first position that does not match.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string-compare-ci s1 s2 proc_lt proc_eq proc_gt [start1 [end1 [start2 [end2]]]]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_compare_ci (s1, s2, proc_lt, proc_eq, proc_gt, start1, end1, start2, end2)
Apply @var{proc_lt}, @var{proc_eq}, @var{proc_gt} to the
mismatch index, depending upon whether @var{s1} is less than,
equal to, or greater than @var{s2}.  The mismatch index is the
largest index @var{i} such that for every 0 <= @var{j} <
@var{i}, @var{s1}[@var{j}] = @var{s2}[@var{j}] -- that is,
@var{i} is the first position that does not match.  The
character comparison is done case-insensitively.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string= s1 s2 [start1 [end1 [start2 [end2]]]]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_eq (s1, s2, start1, end1, start2, end2)
Return @code{#f} if @var{s1} and @var{s2} are not equal, a true
value otherwise.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string<> s1 s2 [start1 [end1 [start2 [end2]]]]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_neq (s1, s2, start1, end1, start2, end2)
Return @code{#f} if @var{s1} and @var{s2} are equal, a true
value otherwise.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string< s1 s2 [start1 [end1 [start2 [end2]]]]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_lt (s1, s2, start1, end1, start2, end2)
Return @code{#f} if @var{s1} is greater or equal to @var{s2}, a
true value otherwise.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string> s1 s2 [start1 [end1 [start2 [end2]]]]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_gt (s1, s2, start1, end1, start2, end2)
Return @code{#f} if @var{s1} is less or equal to @var{s2}, a
true value otherwise.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string<= s1 s2 [start1 [end1 [start2 [end2]]]]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_le (s1, s2, start1, end1, start2, end2)
Return @code{#f} if @var{s1} is greater to @var{s2}, a true
value otherwise.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string>= s1 s2 [start1 [end1 [start2 [end2]]]]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_ge (s1, s2, start1, end1, start2, end2)
Return @code{#f} if @var{s1} is less to @var{s2}, a true value
otherwise.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string-ci= s1 s2 [start1 [end1 [start2 [end2]]]]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_ci_eq (s1, s2, start1, end1, start2, end2)
Return @code{#f} if @var{s1} and @var{s2} are not equal, a true
value otherwise.  The character comparison is done
case-insensitively.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string-ci<> s1 s2 [start1 [end1 [start2 [end2]]]]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_ci_neq (s1, s2, start1, end1, start2, end2)
Return @code{#f} if @var{s1} and @var{s2} are equal, a true
value otherwise.  The character comparison is done
case-insensitively.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string-ci< s1 s2 [start1 [end1 [start2 [end2]]]]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_ci_lt (s1, s2, start1, end1, start2, end2)
Return @code{#f} if @var{s1} is greater or equal to @var{s2}, a
true value otherwise.  The character comparison is done
case-insensitively.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string-ci> s1 s2 [start1 [end1 [start2 [end2]]]]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_ci_gt (s1, s2, start1, end1, start2, end2)
Return @code{#f} if @var{s1} is less or equal to @var{s2}, a
true value otherwise.  The character comparison is done
case-insensitively.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string-ci<= s1 s2 [start1 [end1 [start2 [end2]]]]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_ci_le (s1, s2, start1, end1, start2, end2)
Return @code{#f} if @var{s1} is greater to @var{s2}, a true
value otherwise.  The character comparison is done
case-insensitively.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string-ci>= s1 s2 [start1 [end1 [start2 [end2]]]]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_ci_ge (s1, s2, start1, end1, start2, end2)
Return @code{#f} if @var{s1} is less to @var{s2}, a true value
otherwise.  The character comparison is done
case-insensitively.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string-hash s [bound [start [end]]]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_substring_hash (s, bound, start, end)
Compute a hash value for @var{S}.  the optional argument @var{bound} is a non-negative exact integer specifying the range of the hash function. A positive value restricts the return value to the range [0,bound).
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string-hash-ci s [bound [start [end]]]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_substring_hash_ci (s, bound, start, end)
Compute a hash value for @var{S}.  the optional argument @var{bound} is a non-negative exact integer specifying the range of the hash function. A positive value restricts the return value to the range [0,bound).
@end deffn

@node String Searching
@subsubsection String Searching

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string-index s char_pred [start [end]]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_index (s, char_pred, start, end)
Search through the string @var{s} from left to right, returning
the index of the first occurrence of a character which

@itemize @bullet
@item
equals @var{char_pred}, if it is character,

@item
satisfies the predicate @var{char_pred}, if it is a procedure,

@item
is in the set @var{char_pred}, if it is a character set.
@end itemize
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string-rindex s char_pred [start [end]]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_rindex (s, char_pred, start, end)
Search through the string @var{s} from right to left, returning
the index of the last occurrence of a character which

@itemize @bullet
@item
equals @var{char_pred}, if it is character,

@item
satisfies the predicate @var{char_pred}, if it is a procedure,

@item
is in the set if @var{char_pred} is a character set.
@end itemize
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string-prefix-length s1 s2 [start1 [end1 [start2 [end2]]]]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_prefix_length (s1, s2, start1, end1, start2, end2)
Return the length of the longest common prefix of the two
strings.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string-prefix-length-ci s1 s2 [start1 [end1 [start2 [end2]]]]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_prefix_length_ci (s1, s2, start1, end1, start2, end2)
Return the length of the longest common prefix of the two
strings, ignoring character case.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string-suffix-length s1 s2 [start1 [end1 [start2 [end2]]]]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_suffix_length (s1, s2, start1, end1, start2, end2)
Return the length of the longest common suffix of the two
strings.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string-suffix-length-ci s1 s2 [start1 [end1 [start2 [end2]]]]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_suffix_length_ci (s1, s2, start1, end1, start2, end2)
Return the length of the longest common suffix of the two
strings, ignoring character case.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string-prefix? s1 s2 [start1 [end1 [start2 [end2]]]]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_prefix_p (s1, s2, start1, end1, start2, end2)
Is @var{s1} a prefix of @var{s2}?
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string-prefix-ci? s1 s2 [start1 [end1 [start2 [end2]]]]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_prefix_ci_p (s1, s2, start1, end1, start2, end2)
Is @var{s1} a prefix of @var{s2}, ignoring character case?
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string-suffix? s1 s2 [start1 [end1 [start2 [end2]]]]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_suffix_p (s1, s2, start1, end1, start2, end2)
Is @var{s1} a suffix of @var{s2}?
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string-suffix-ci? s1 s2 [start1 [end1 [start2 [end2]]]]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_suffix_ci_p (s1, s2, start1, end1, start2, end2)
Is @var{s1} a suffix of @var{s2}, ignoring character case?
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string-index-right s char_pred [start [end]]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_index_right (s, char_pred, start, end)
Search through the string @var{s} from right to left, returning
the index of the last occurrence of a character which

@itemize @bullet
@item
equals @var{char_pred}, if it is character,

@item
satisfies the predicate @var{char_pred}, if it is a procedure,

@item
is in the set if @var{char_pred} is a character set.
@end itemize
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string-skip s char_pred [start [end]]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_skip (s, char_pred, start, end)
Search through the string @var{s} from left to right, returning
the index of the first occurrence of a character which

@itemize @bullet
@item
does not equal @var{char_pred}, if it is character,

@item
does not satisfy the predicate @var{char_pred}, if it is a
procedure,

@item
is not in the set if @var{char_pred} is a character set.
@end itemize
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string-skip-right s char_pred [start [end]]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_skip_right (s, char_pred, start, end)
Search through the string @var{s} from right to left, returning
the index of the last occurrence of a character which

@itemize @bullet
@item
does not equal @var{char_pred}, if it is character,

@item
does not satisfy the predicate @var{char_pred}, if it is a
procedure,

@item
is not in the set if @var{char_pred} is a character set.
@end itemize
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string-count s char_pred [start [end]]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_count (s, char_pred, start, end)
Return the count of the number of characters in the string
@var{s} which

@itemize @bullet
@item
equals @var{char_pred}, if it is character,

@item
satisfies the predicate @var{char_pred}, if it is a procedure.

@item
is in the set @var{char_pred}, if it is a character set.
@end itemize
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string-contains s1 s2 [start1 [end1 [start2 [end2]]]]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_contains (s1, s2, start1, end1, start2, end2)
Does string @var{s1} contain string @var{s2}?  Return the index
in @var{s1} where @var{s2} occurs as a substring, or false.
The optional start/end indices restrict the operation to the
indicated substrings.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string-contains-ci s1 s2 [start1 [end1 [start2 [end2]]]]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_contains_ci (s1, s2, start1, end1, start2, end2)
Does string @var{s1} contain string @var{s2}?  Return the index
in @var{s1} where @var{s2} occurs as a substring, or false.
The optional start/end indices restrict the operation to the
indicated substrings.  Character comparison is done
case-insensitively.
@end deffn

@node Alphabetic Case Mapping
@subsubsection Alphabetic Case Mapping

These are procedures for mapping strings to their upper- or lower-case
equivalents, respectively, or for capitalizing strings.

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string-upcase str [start [end]]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_substring_upcase (str, start, end)
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_upcase (str)
Upcase every character in @code{str}.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string-upcase! str [start [end]]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_substring_upcase_x (str, start, end)
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_upcase_x (str)
Destructively upcase every character in @code{str}.

@lisp
(string-upcase! y)
@result{} "ARRDEFG"
y
@result{} "ARRDEFG"
@end lisp
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string-downcase str [start [end]]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_substring_downcase (str, start, end)
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_downcase (str)
Downcase every character in @var{str}.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string-downcase! str [start [end]]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_substring_downcase_x (str, start, end)
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_downcase_x (str)
Destructively downcase every character in @var{str}.

@lisp
y
@result{} "ARRDEFG"
(string-downcase! y)
@result{} "arrdefg"
y
@result{} "arrdefg"
@end lisp
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string-capitalize str
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_capitalize (str)
Return a freshly allocated string with the characters in
@var{str}, where the first character of every word is
capitalized.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string-capitalize! str
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_capitalize_x (str)
Upcase the first character of every word in @var{str}
destructively and return @var{str}.

@lisp
y                      @result{} "hello world"
(string-capitalize! y) @result{} "Hello World"
y                      @result{} "Hello World"
@end lisp
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string-titlecase str [start [end]]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_titlecase (str, start, end)
Titlecase every first character in a word in @var{str}.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string-titlecase! str [start [end]]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_titlecase_x (str, start, end)
Destructively titlecase every first character in a word in
@var{str}.
@end deffn

@node Reversing and Appending Strings
@subsubsection Reversing and Appending Strings

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string-reverse str [start [end]]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_reverse (str, start, end)
Reverse the string @var{str}.  The optional arguments
@var{start} and @var{end} delimit the region of @var{str} to
operate on.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string-reverse! str [start [end]]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_reverse_x (str, start, end)
Reverse the string @var{str} in-place.  The optional arguments
@var{start} and @var{end} delimit the region of @var{str} to
operate on.  The return value is unspecified.
@end deffn

@rnindex string-append
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string-append . args
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_append (args)
Return a newly allocated string whose characters form the
concatenation of the given strings, @var{args}.

@example
(let ((h "hello "))
  (string-append h "world"))
@result{} "hello world"
@end example
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string-append/shared . ls
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_append_shared (ls)
Like @code{string-append}, but the result may share memory
with the argument strings.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string-concatenate ls
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_concatenate (ls)
Append the elements of @var{ls} (which must be strings)
together into a single string.  Guaranteed to return a freshly
allocated string.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string-concatenate-reverse ls [final_string [end]]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_concatenate_reverse (ls, final_string, end)
Without optional arguments, this procedure is equivalent to

@lisp
(string-concatenate (reverse ls))
@end lisp

If the optional argument @var{final_string} is specified, it is
consed onto the beginning to @var{ls} before performing the
list-reverse and string-concatenate operations.  If @var{end}
is given, only the characters of @var{final_string} up to index
@var{end} are used.

Guaranteed to return a freshly allocated string.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string-concatenate/shared ls
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_concatenate_shared (ls)
Like @code{string-concatenate}, but the result may share memory
with the strings in the list @var{ls}.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string-concatenate-reverse/shared ls [final_string [end]]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_concatenate_reverse_shared (ls, final_string, end)
Like @code{string-concatenate-reverse}, but the result may
share memory with the strings in the @var{ls} arguments.
@end deffn

@node Mapping Folding and Unfolding
@subsubsection Mapping, Folding, and Unfolding

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string-map proc s [start [end]]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_map (proc, s, start, end)
@var{proc} is a char->char procedure, it is mapped over
@var{s}.  The order in which the procedure is applied to the
string elements is not specified.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string-map! proc s [start [end]]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_map_x (proc, s, start, end)
@var{proc} is a char->char procedure, it is mapped over
@var{s}.  The order in which the procedure is applied to the
string elements is not specified.  The string @var{s} is
modified in-place, the return value is not specified.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string-for-each proc s [start [end]]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_for_each (proc, s, start, end)
@var{proc} is mapped over @var{s} in left-to-right order.  The
return value is not specified.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string-for-each-index proc s [start [end]]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_for_each_index (proc, s, start, end)
Call @code{(@var{proc} i)} for each index i in @var{s}, from left to
right.

For example, to change characters to alternately upper and lower case,

@example
(define str (string-copy "studly"))
(string-for-each-index
    (lambda (i)
      (string-set! str i
        ((if (even? i) char-upcase char-downcase)
         (string-ref str i))))
    str)
str @result{} "StUdLy"
@end example
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string-fold kons knil s [start [end]]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_fold (kons, knil, s, start, end)
Fold @var{kons} over the characters of @var{s}, with @var{knil}
as the terminating element, from left to right.  @var{kons}
must expect two arguments: The actual character and the last
result of @var{kons}' application.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string-fold-right kons knil s [start [end]]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_fold_right (kons, knil, s, start, end)
Fold @var{kons} over the characters of @var{s}, with @var{knil}
as the terminating element, from right to left.  @var{kons}
must expect two arguments: The actual character and the last
result of @var{kons}' application.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string-unfold p f g seed [base [make_final]]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_unfold (p, f, g, seed, base, make_final)
@itemize @bullet
@item @var{g} is used to generate a series of @emph{seed}
values from the initial @var{seed}: @var{seed}, (@var{g}
@var{seed}), (@var{g}^2 @var{seed}), (@var{g}^3 @var{seed}),
@dots{}
@item @var{p} tells us when to stop -- when it returns true
when applied to one of these seed values.
@item @var{f} maps each seed value to the corresponding
character in the result string.  These chars are assembled
into the string in a left-to-right order.
@item @var{base} is the optional initial/leftmost portion
of the constructed string; it default to the empty
string.
@item @var{make_final} is applied to the terminal seed
value (on which @var{p} returns true) to produce
the final/rightmost portion of the constructed string.
The default is nothing extra.
@end itemize
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string-unfold-right p f g seed [base [make_final]]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_unfold_right (p, f, g, seed, base, make_final)
@itemize @bullet
@item @var{g} is used to generate a series of @emph{seed}
values from the initial @var{seed}: @var{seed}, (@var{g}
@var{seed}), (@var{g}^2 @var{seed}), (@var{g}^3 @var{seed}),
@dots{}
@item @var{p} tells us when to stop -- when it returns true
when applied to one of these seed values.
@item @var{f} maps each seed value to the corresponding
character in the result string.  These chars are assembled
into the string in a right-to-left order.
@item @var{base} is the optional initial/rightmost portion
of the constructed string; it default to the empty
string.
@item @var{make_final} is applied to the terminal seed
value (on which @var{p} returns true) to produce
the final/leftmost portion of the constructed string.
It defaults to @code{(lambda (x) )}.
@end itemize
@end deffn

@node Miscellaneous String Operations
@subsubsection Miscellaneous String Operations

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} xsubstring s from [to [start [end]]]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_xsubstring (s, from, to, start, end)
This is the @emph{extended substring} procedure that implements
replicated copying of a substring of some string.

@var{s} is a string, @var{start} and @var{end} are optional
arguments that demarcate a substring of @var{s}, defaulting to
0 and the length of @var{s}.  Replicate this substring up and
down index space, in both the positive and negative directions.
@code{xsubstring} returns the substring of this string
beginning at index @var{from}, and ending at @var{to}, which
defaults to @var{from} + (@var{end} - @var{start}).
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string-xcopy! target tstart s sfrom [sto [start [end]]]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_xcopy_x (target, tstart, s, sfrom, sto, start, end)
Exactly the same as @code{xsubstring}, but the extracted text
is written into the string @var{target} starting at index
@var{tstart}.  The operation is not defined if @code{(eq?
@var{target} @var{s})} or these arguments share storage -- you
cannot copy a string on top of itself.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string-replace s1 s2 [start1 [end1 [start2 [end2]]]]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_replace (s1, s2, start1, end1, start2, end2)
Return the string @var{s1}, but with the characters
@var{start1} @dots{} @var{end1} replaced by the characters
@var{start2} @dots{} @var{end2} from @var{s2}.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string-tokenize s [token_set [start [end]]]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_tokenize (s, token_set, start, end)
Split the string @var{s} into a list of substrings, where each
substring is a maximal non-empty contiguous sequence of
characters from the character set @var{token_set}, which
defaults to @code{char-set:graphic}.
If @var{start} or @var{end} indices are provided, they restrict
@code{string-tokenize} to operating on the indicated substring
of @var{s}.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string-filter s char_pred [start [end]]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_filter (s, char_pred, start, end)
Filter the string @var{s}, retaining only those characters which
satisfy @var{char_pred}.

If @var{char_pred} is a procedure, it is applied to each character as
a predicate, if it is a character, it is tested for equality and if it
is a character set, it is tested for membership.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string-delete s char_pred [start [end]]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_delete (s, char_pred, start, end)
Delete characters satisfying @var{char_pred} from @var{s}.

If @var{char_pred} is a procedure, it is applied to each character as
a predicate, if it is a character, it is tested for equality and if it
is a character set, it is tested for membership.
@end deffn

@node Conversion to/from C
@subsubsection Conversion to/from C

When creating a Scheme string from a C string or when converting a
Scheme string to a C string, the concept of character encoding becomes
important.

In C, a string is just a sequence of bytes, and the character encoding
describes the relation between these bytes and the actual characters
that make up the string.  For Scheme strings, character encoding is
not an issue (most of the time), since in Scheme you never get to see
the bytes, only the characters.

Well, ideally, anyway.  Right now, Guile simply equates Scheme
characters and bytes, ignoring the possibility of multi-byte encodings
completely.  This will change in the future, where Guile will use
Unicode codepoints as its characters and UTF-8 or some other encoding
as its internal encoding.  When you exclusively use the functions
listed in this section, you are `future-proof'.

Converting a Scheme string to a C string will often allocate fresh
memory to hold the result.  You must take care that this memory is
properly freed eventually.  In many cases, this can be achieved by
using @code{scm_dynwind_free} inside an appropriate dynwind context,
@xref{Dynamic Wind}.

@deftypefn  {C Function} SCM scm_from_locale_string (const char *str)
@deftypefnx {C Function} SCM scm_from_locale_stringn (const char *str, size_t len)
Creates a new Scheme string that has the same contents as @var{str}
when interpreted in the current locale character encoding.

For @code{scm_from_locale_string}, @var{str} must be null-terminated.

For @code{scm_from_locale_stringn}, @var{len} specifies the length of
@var{str} in bytes, and @var{str} does not need to be null-terminated.
If @var{len} is @code{(size_t)-1}, then @var{str} does need to be
null-terminated and the real length will be found with @code{strlen}.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn  {C Function} SCM scm_take_locale_string (char *str)
@deftypefnx {C Function} SCM scm_take_locale_stringn (char *str, size_t len)
Like @code{scm_from_locale_string} and @code{scm_from_locale_stringn},
respectively, but also frees @var{str} with @code{free} eventually.
Thus, you can use this function when you would free @var{str} anyway
immediately after creating the Scheme string.  In certain cases, Guile
can then use @var{str} directly as its internal representation.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn  {C Function} {char *} scm_to_locale_string (SCM str)
@deftypefnx {C Function} {char *} scm_to_locale_stringn (SCM str, size_t *lenp)
Returns a C string in the current locale encoding with the same
contents as @var{str}.  The C string must be freed with @code{free}
eventually, maybe by using @code{scm_dynwind_free}, @xref{Dynamic
Wind}.

For @code{scm_to_locale_string}, the returned string is
null-terminated and an error is signalled when @var{str} contains
@code{#\nul} characters.

For @code{scm_to_locale_stringn} and @var{lenp} not @code{NULL},
@var{str} might contain @code{#\nul} characters and the length of the
returned string in bytes is stored in @code{*@var{lenp}}.  The
returned string will not be null-terminated in this case.  If
@var{lenp} is @code{NULL}, @code{scm_to_locale_stringn} behaves like
@code{scm_to_locale_string}.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn {C Function} size_t scm_to_locale_stringbuf (SCM str, char *buf, size_t max_len)
Puts @var{str} as a C string in the current locale encoding into the
memory pointed to by @var{buf}.  The buffer at @var{buf} has room for
@var{max_len} bytes and @code{scm_to_local_stringbuf} will never store
more than that.  No terminating @code{'\0'} will be stored.

The return value of @code{scm_to_locale_stringbuf} is the number of
bytes that are needed for all of @var{str}, regardless of whether
@var{buf} was large enough to hold them.  Thus, when the return value
is larger than @var{max_len}, only @var{max_len} bytes have been
stored and you probably need to try again with a larger buffer.
@end deftypefn

@node Bytevectors
@subsection Bytevectors

@cindex bytevector
@cindex R6RS

A @dfn{bytevector} is a raw bit string.  The @code{(rnrs bytevector)}
module provides the programming interface specified by the
@uref{http://www.r6rs.org/, Revised^6 Report on the Algorithmic Language
Scheme (R6RS)}.  It contains procedures to manipulate bytevectors and
interpret their contents in a number of ways: bytevector contents can be
accessed as signed or unsigned integer of various sizes and endianness,
as IEEE-754 floating point numbers, or as strings.  It is a useful tool
to encode and decode binary data.

The R6RS (Section 4.3.4) specifies an external representation for
bytevectors, whereby the octets (integers in the range 0--255) contained
in the bytevector are represented as a list prefixed by @code{#vu8}:

@lisp
#vu8(1 53 204)
@end lisp

denotes a 3-byte bytevector containing the octets 1, 53, and 204.  Like
string literals, booleans, etc., bytevectors are ``self-quoting'', i.e.,
they do not need to be quoted:

@lisp
#vu8(1 53 204)
@result{} #vu8(1 53 204)
@end lisp

Bytevectors can be used with the binary input/output primitives of the
R6RS (@pxref{R6RS I/O Ports}).

@menu
* Bytevector Endianness::       Dealing with byte order.
* Bytevector Manipulation::     Creating, copying, manipulating bytevectors.
* Bytevectors as Integers::     Interpreting bytes as integers.
* Bytevectors and Integer Lists::  Converting to/from an integer list.
* Bytevectors as Floats::       Interpreting bytes as real numbers.
* Bytevectors as Strings::      Interpreting bytes as Unicode strings.
* Bytevectors as Generalized Vectors::  Guile extension to the bytevector API.
@end menu

@node Bytevector Endianness
@subsubsection Endianness

@cindex endianness
@cindex byte order
@cindex word order

Some of the following procedures take an @var{endianness} parameter.
The @dfn{endianness} is defined as the order of bytes in multi-byte
numbers: numbers encoded in @dfn{big endian} have their most
significant bytes written first, whereas numbers encoded in
@dfn{little endian} have their least significant bytes
first@footnote{Big-endian and little-endian are the most common
``endiannesses'', but others do exist. For instance, the GNU MP
library allows @dfn{word order} to be specified independently of
@dfn{byte order} (@pxref{Integer Import and Export,,, gmp, The GNU
Multiple Precision Arithmetic Library Manual}).}.

Little-endian is the native endianness of the IA32 architecture and
its derivatives, while big-endian is native to SPARC and PowerPC,
among others. The @code{native-endianness} procedure returns the
native endianness of the machine it runs on.

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} native-endianness
@deffnx {C Function} scm_native_endianness ()
Return a value denoting the native endianness of the host machine.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Macro} endianness symbol
Return an object denoting the endianness specified by @var{symbol}.  If
@var{symbol} is neither @code{big} nor @code{little} then an error is
raised at expand-time.
@end deffn

@defvr {C Variable} scm_endianness_big
@defvrx {C Variable} scm_endianness_little
The objects denoting big- and little-endianness, respectively.
@end defvr


@node Bytevector Manipulation
@subsubsection Manipulating Bytevectors

Bytevectors can be created, copied, and analyzed with the following
procedures and C functions.

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} make-bytevector len [fill]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_make_bytevector (len, fill)
@deffnx {C Function} scm_c_make_bytevector (size_t len)
Return a new bytevector of @var{len} bytes.  Optionally, if @var{fill}
is given, fill it with @var{fill}; @var{fill} must be in the range
[-128,255].
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} bytevector? obj
@deffnx {C Function} scm_bytevector_p (obj)
Return true if @var{obj} is a bytevector.
@end deffn

@deftypefn {C Function} int scm_is_bytevector (SCM obj)
Equivalent to @code{scm_is_true (scm_bytevector_p (obj))}.
@end deftypefn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} bytevector-length bv
@deffnx {C Function} scm_bytevector_length (bv)
Return the length in bytes of bytevector @var{bv}.
@end deffn

@deftypefn {C Function} size_t scm_c_bytevector_length (SCM bv)
Likewise, return the length in bytes of bytevector @var{bv}.
@end deftypefn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} bytevector=? bv1 bv2
@deffnx {C Function} scm_bytevector_eq_p (bv1, bv2)
Return is @var{bv1} equals to @var{bv2}---i.e., if they have the same
length and contents.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} bytevector-fill! bv fill
@deffnx {C Function} scm_bytevector_fill_x (bv, fill)
Fill bytevector @var{bv} with @var{fill}, a byte.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} bytevector-copy! source source-start target target-start len
@deffnx {C Function} scm_bytevector_copy_x (source, source_start, target, target_start, len)
Copy @var{len} bytes from @var{source} into @var{target}, starting
reading from @var{source-start} (a positive index within @var{source})
and start writing at @var{target-start}.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} bytevector-copy bv
@deffnx {C Function} scm_bytevector_copy (bv)
Return a newly allocated copy of @var{bv}.
@end deffn

@deftypefn {C Function} scm_t_uint8 scm_c_bytevector_ref (SCM bv, size_t index)
Return the byte at @var{index} in bytevector @var{bv}.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn {C Function} void scm_c_bytevector_set_x (SCM bv, size_t index, scm_t_uint8 value)
Set the byte at @var{index} in @var{bv} to @var{value}.
@end deftypefn

Low-level C macros are available.  They do not perform any
type-checking; as such they should be used with care.

@deftypefn {C Macro} size_t SCM_BYTEVECTOR_LENGTH (bv)
Return the length in bytes of bytevector @var{bv}.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn {C Macro} {signed char *} SCM_BYTEVECTOR_CONTENTS (bv)
Return a pointer to the contents of bytevector @var{bv}.
@end deftypefn


@node Bytevectors as Integers
@subsubsection Interpreting Bytevector Contents as Integers

The contents of a bytevector can be interpreted as a sequence of
integers of any given size, sign, and endianness.

@lisp
(let ((bv (make-bytevector 4)))
  (bytevector-u8-set! bv 0 #x12)
  (bytevector-u8-set! bv 1 #x34)
  (bytevector-u8-set! bv 2 #x56)
  (bytevector-u8-set! bv 3 #x78)

  (map (lambda (number)
         (number->string number 16))
       (list (bytevector-u8-ref bv 0)
             (bytevector-u16-ref bv 0 (endianness big))
             (bytevector-u32-ref bv 0 (endianness little)))))

@result{} ("12" "1234" "78563412")
@end lisp

The most generic procedures to interpret bytevector contents as integers
are described below.

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} bytevector-uint-ref bv index endianness size
@deffnx {Scheme Procedure} bytevector-sint-ref bv index endianness size
@deffnx {C Function} scm_bytevector_uint_ref (bv, index, endianness, size)
@deffnx {C Function} scm_bytevector_sint_ref (bv, index, endianness, size)
Return the @var{size}-byte long unsigned (resp. signed) integer at
index @var{index} in @var{bv}, decoded according to @var{endianness}.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} bytevector-uint-set! bv index value endianness size
@deffnx {Scheme Procedure} bytevector-sint-set! bv index value endianness size
@deffnx {C Function} scm_bytevector_uint_set_x (bv, index, value, endianness, size)
@deffnx {C Function} scm_bytevector_sint_set_x (bv, index, value, endianness, size)
Set the @var{size}-byte long unsigned (resp. signed) integer at
@var{index} to @var{value}, encoded according to @var{endianness}.
@end deffn

The following procedures are similar to the ones above, but specialized
to a given integer size:

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} bytevector-u8-ref bv index
@deffnx {Scheme Procedure} bytevector-s8-ref bv index
@deffnx {Scheme Procedure} bytevector-u16-ref bv index endianness
@deffnx {Scheme Procedure} bytevector-s16-ref bv index endianness
@deffnx {Scheme Procedure} bytevector-u32-ref bv index endianness
@deffnx {Scheme Procedure} bytevector-s32-ref bv index endianness
@deffnx {Scheme Procedure} bytevector-u64-ref bv index endianness
@deffnx {Scheme Procedure} bytevector-s64-ref bv index endianness
@deffnx {C Function} scm_bytevector_u8_ref (bv, index)
@deffnx {C Function} scm_bytevector_s8_ref (bv, index)
@deffnx {C Function} scm_bytevector_u16_ref (bv, index, endianness)
@deffnx {C Function} scm_bytevector_s16_ref (bv, index, endianness)
@deffnx {C Function} scm_bytevector_u32_ref (bv, index, endianness)
@deffnx {C Function} scm_bytevector_s32_ref (bv, index, endianness)
@deffnx {C Function} scm_bytevector_u64_ref (bv, index, endianness)
@deffnx {C Function} scm_bytevector_s64_ref (bv, index, endianness)
Return the unsigned @var{n}-bit (signed) integer (where @var{n} is 8,
16, 32 or 64) from @var{bv} at @var{index}, decoded according to
@var{endianness}.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} bytevector-u8-set! bv index value
@deffnx {Scheme Procedure} bytevector-s8-set! bv index value
@deffnx {Scheme Procedure} bytevector-u16-set! bv index value endianness
@deffnx {Scheme Procedure} bytevector-s16-set! bv index value endianness
@deffnx {Scheme Procedure} bytevector-u32-set! bv index value endianness
@deffnx {Scheme Procedure} bytevector-s32-set! bv index value endianness
@deffnx {Scheme Procedure} bytevector-u64-set! bv index value endianness
@deffnx {Scheme Procedure} bytevector-s64-set! bv index value endianness
@deffnx {C Function} scm_bytevector_u8_set_x (bv, index, value)
@deffnx {C Function} scm_bytevector_s8_set_x (bv, index, value)
@deffnx {C Function} scm_bytevector_u16_set_x (bv, index, value, endianness)
@deffnx {C Function} scm_bytevector_s16_set_x (bv, index, value, endianness)
@deffnx {C Function} scm_bytevector_u32_set_x (bv, index, value, endianness)
@deffnx {C Function} scm_bytevector_s32_set_x (bv, index, value, endianness)
@deffnx {C Function} scm_bytevector_u64_set_x (bv, index, value, endianness)
@deffnx {C Function} scm_bytevector_s64_set_x (bv, index, value, endianness)
Store @var{value} as an @var{n}-bit (signed) integer (where @var{n} is
8, 16, 32 or 64) in @var{bv} at @var{index}, encoded according to
@var{endianness}.
@end deffn

Finally, a variant specialized for the host's endianness is available
for each of these functions (with the exception of the @code{u8}
accessors, for obvious reasons):

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} bytevector-u16-native-ref bv index
@deffnx {Scheme Procedure} bytevector-s16-native-ref bv index
@deffnx {Scheme Procedure} bytevector-u32-native-ref bv index
@deffnx {Scheme Procedure} bytevector-s32-native-ref bv index
@deffnx {Scheme Procedure} bytevector-u64-native-ref bv index
@deffnx {Scheme Procedure} bytevector-s64-native-ref bv index
@deffnx {C Function} scm_bytevector_u16_native_ref (bv, index)
@deffnx {C Function} scm_bytevector_s16_native_ref (bv, index)
@deffnx {C Function} scm_bytevector_u32_native_ref (bv, index)
@deffnx {C Function} scm_bytevector_s32_native_ref (bv, index)
@deffnx {C Function} scm_bytevector_u64_native_ref (bv, index)
@deffnx {C Function} scm_bytevector_s64_native_ref (bv, index)
Return the unsigned @var{n}-bit (signed) integer (where @var{n} is 8,
16, 32 or 64) from @var{bv} at @var{index}, decoded according to the
host's native endianness.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} bytevector-u16-native-set! bv index value
@deffnx {Scheme Procedure} bytevector-s16-native-set! bv index value
@deffnx {Scheme Procedure} bytevector-u32-native-set! bv index value
@deffnx {Scheme Procedure} bytevector-s32-native-set! bv index value
@deffnx {Scheme Procedure} bytevector-u64-native-set! bv index value
@deffnx {Scheme Procedure} bytevector-s64-native-set! bv index value
@deffnx {C Function} scm_bytevector_u16_native_set_x (bv, index, value)
@deffnx {C Function} scm_bytevector_s16_native_set_x (bv, index, value)
@deffnx {C Function} scm_bytevector_u32_native_set_x (bv, index, value)
@deffnx {C Function} scm_bytevector_s32_native_set_x (bv, index, value)
@deffnx {C Function} scm_bytevector_u64_native_set_x (bv, index, value)
@deffnx {C Function} scm_bytevector_s64_native_set_x (bv, index, value)
Store @var{value} as an @var{n}-bit (signed) integer (where @var{n} is
8, 16, 32 or 64) in @var{bv} at @var{index}, encoded according to the
host's native endianness.
@end deffn


@node Bytevectors and Integer Lists
@subsubsection Converting Bytevectors to/from Integer Lists

Bytevector contents can readily be converted to/from lists of signed or
unsigned integers:

@lisp
(bytevector->sint-list (u8-list->bytevector (make-list 4 255))
                       (endianness little) 2)
@result{} (-1 -1)
@end lisp

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} bytevector->u8-list bv
@deffnx {C Function} scm_bytevector_to_u8_list (bv)
Return a newly allocated list of unsigned 8-bit integers from the
contents of @var{bv}.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} u8-list->bytevector lst
@deffnx {C Function} scm_u8_list_to_bytevector (lst)
Return a newly allocated bytevector consisting of the unsigned 8-bit
integers listed in @var{lst}.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} bytevector->uint-list bv endianness size
@deffnx {Scheme Procedure} bytevector->sint-list bv endianness size
@deffnx {C Function} scm_bytevector_to_uint_list (bv, endianness, size)
@deffnx {C Function} scm_bytevector_to_sint_list (bv, endianness, size)
Return a list of unsigned (resp. signed) integers of @var{size} bytes
representing the contents of @var{bv}, decoded according to
@var{endianness}.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} uint-list->bytevector lst endianness size
@deffnx {Scheme Procedure} sint-list->bytevector lst endianness size
@deffnx {C Function} scm_uint_list_to_bytevector (lst, endianness, size)
@deffnx {C Function} scm_sint_list_to_bytevector (lst, endianness, size)
Return a new bytevector containing the unsigned (resp. signed) integers
listed in @var{lst} and encoded on @var{size} bytes according to
@var{endianness}.
@end deffn

@node Bytevectors as Floats
@subsubsection Interpreting Bytevector Contents as Floating Point Numbers

@cindex IEEE-754 floating point numbers

Bytevector contents can also be accessed as IEEE-754 single- or
double-precision floating point numbers (respectively 32 and 64-bit
long) using the procedures described here.

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} bytevector-ieee-single-ref bv index endianness
@deffnx {Scheme Procedure} bytevector-ieee-double-ref bv index endianness
@deffnx {C Function} scm_bytevector_ieee_single_ref (bv, index, endianness)
@deffnx {C Function} scm_bytevector_ieee_double_ref (bv, index, endianness)
Return the IEEE-754 single-precision floating point number from @var{bv}
at @var{index} according to @var{endianness}.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} bytevector-ieee-single-set! bv index value endianness
@deffnx {Scheme Procedure} bytevector-ieee-double-set! bv index value endianness
@deffnx {C Function} scm_bytevector_ieee_single_set_x (bv, index, value, endianness)
@deffnx {C Function} scm_bytevector_ieee_double_set_x (bv, index, value, endianness)
Store real number @var{value} in @var{bv} at @var{index} according to
@var{endianness}.
@end deffn

Specialized procedures are also available:

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} bytevector-ieee-single-native-ref bv index
@deffnx {Scheme Procedure} bytevector-ieee-double-native-ref bv index
@deffnx {C Function} scm_bytevector_ieee_single_native_ref (bv, index)
@deffnx {C Function} scm_bytevector_ieee_double_native_ref (bv, index)
Return the IEEE-754 single-precision floating point number from @var{bv}
at @var{index} according to the host's native endianness.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} bytevector-ieee-single-native-set! bv index value
@deffnx {Scheme Procedure} bytevector-ieee-double-native-set! bv index value
@deffnx {C Function} scm_bytevector_ieee_single_native_set_x (bv, index, value)
@deffnx {C Function} scm_bytevector_ieee_double_native_set_x (bv, index, value)
Store real number @var{value} in @var{bv} at @var{index} according to
the host's native endianness.
@end deffn


@node Bytevectors as Strings
@subsubsection Interpreting Bytevector Contents as Unicode Strings

@cindex Unicode string encoding

Bytevector contents can also be interpreted as Unicode strings encoded
in one of the most commonly available encoding formats@footnote{Guile
1.8 does @emph{not} support Unicode strings.  Therefore, the procedures
described here assume that Guile strings are internally encoded
according to the current locale.  For instance, if @code{$LC_CTYPE} is
@code{fr_FR.ISO-8859-1}, then @code{string->utf-8} @i{et al.} will
assume that Guile strings are Latin-1-encoded.}.

@lisp
(utf8->string (u8-list->bytevector '(99 97 102 101)))
@result{} "cafe"

(string->utf8 "caf@'e") ;; SMALL LATIN LETTER E WITH ACUTE ACCENT
@result{} #vu8(99 97 102 195 169)
@end lisp

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string->utf8 str
@deffnx {Scheme Procedure} string->utf16 str
@deffnx {Scheme Procedure} string->utf32 str
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_to_utf8 (str)
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_to_utf16 (str)
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_to_utf32 (str)
Return a newly allocated bytevector that contains the UTF-8, UTF-16, or
UTF-32 (aka. UCS-4) encoding of @var{str}.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} utf8->string utf
@deffnx {Scheme Procedure} utf16->string utf
@deffnx {Scheme Procedure} utf32->string utf
@deffnx {C Function} scm_utf8_to_string (utf)
@deffnx {C Function} scm_utf16_to_string (utf)
@deffnx {C Function} scm_utf32_to_string (utf)
Return a newly allocated string that contains from the UTF-8-, UTF-16-,
or UTF-32-decoded contents of bytevector @var{utf}.
@end deffn

@node Bytevectors as Generalized Vectors
@subsubsection Accessing Bytevectors with the Generalized Vector API

As an extension to the R6RS, Guile allows bytevectors to be manipulated
with the @dfn{generalized vector} procedures (@pxref{Generalized
Vectors}).  This also allows bytevectors to be accessed using the
generic @dfn{array} procedures (@pxref{Array Procedures}).  When using
these APIs, bytes are accessed one at a time as 8-bit unsigned integers:

@example
(define bv #vu8(0 1 2 3))

(generalized-vector? bv)
@result{} #t

(generalized-vector-ref bv 2)
@result{} 2

(generalized-vector-set! bv 2 77)
(array-ref bv 2)
@result{} 77

(array-type bv)
@result{} vu8
@end example


@node Regular Expressions
@subsection Regular Expressions
@tpindex Regular expressions

@cindex regular expressions
@cindex regex
@cindex emacs regexp

A @dfn{regular expression} (or @dfn{regexp}) is a pattern that
describes a whole class of strings.  A full description of regular
expressions and their syntax is beyond the scope of this manual;
an introduction can be found in the Emacs manual (@pxref{Regexps,
, Syntax of Regular Expressions, emacs, The GNU Emacs Manual}), or
in many general Unix reference books.

If your system does not include a POSIX regular expression library,
and you have not linked Guile with a third-party regexp library such
as Rx, these functions will not be available.  You can tell whether
your Guile installation includes regular expression support by
checking whether @code{(provided? 'regex)} returns true.

The following regexp and string matching features are provided by the
@code{(ice-9 regex)} module.  Before using the described functions,
you should load this module by executing @code{(use-modules (ice-9
regex))}.

@menu
* Regexp Functions::            Functions that create and match regexps.
* Match Structures::            Finding what was matched by a regexp.
* Backslash Escapes::           Removing the special meaning of regexp
                                meta-characters.
@end menu


@node Regexp Functions
@subsubsection Regexp Functions

By default, Guile supports POSIX extended regular expressions.
That means that the characters @samp{(}, @samp{)}, @samp{+} and
@samp{?} are special, and must be escaped if you wish to match the
literal characters.

This regular expression interface was modeled after that
implemented by SCSH, the Scheme Shell.  It is intended to be
upwardly compatible with SCSH regular expressions.

Zero bytes (@code{#\nul}) cannot be used in regex patterns or input
strings, since the underlying C functions treat that as the end of
string.  If there's a zero byte an error is thrown.

Patterns and input strings are treated as being in the locale
character set if @code{setlocale} has been called (@pxref{Locales}),
and in a multibyte locale this includes treating multi-byte sequences
as a single character.  (Guile strings are currently merely bytes,
though this may change in the future, @xref{Conversion to/from C}.)

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string-match pattern str [start]
Compile the string @var{pattern} into a regular expression and compare
it with @var{str}.  The optional numeric argument @var{start} specifies
the position of @var{str} at which to begin matching.

@code{string-match} returns a @dfn{match structure} which
describes what, if anything, was matched by the regular
expression.  @xref{Match Structures}.  If @var{str} does not match
@var{pattern} at all, @code{string-match} returns @code{#f}.
@end deffn

Two examples of a match follow.  In the first example, the pattern
matches the four digits in the match string.  In the second, the pattern
matches nothing.

@example
(string-match "[0-9][0-9][0-9][0-9]" "blah2002")
@result{} #("blah2002" (4 . 8))

(string-match "[A-Za-z]" "123456")
@result{} #f
@end example

Each time @code{string-match} is called, it must compile its
@var{pattern} argument into a regular expression structure.  This
operation is expensive, which makes @code{string-match} inefficient if
the same regular expression is used several times (for example, in a
loop).  For better performance, you can compile a regular expression in
advance and then match strings against the compiled regexp.

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} make-regexp pat flag@dots{}
@deffnx {C Function} scm_make_regexp (pat, flaglst)
Compile the regular expression described by @var{pat}, and
return the compiled regexp structure.  If @var{pat} does not
describe a legal regular expression, @code{make-regexp} throws
a @code{regular-expression-syntax} error.

The @var{flag} arguments change the behavior of the compiled
regular expression.  The following values may be supplied:

@defvar regexp/icase
Consider uppercase and lowercase letters to be the same when
matching.
@end defvar

@defvar regexp/newline
If a newline appears in the target string, then permit the
@samp{^} and @samp{$} operators to match immediately after or
immediately before the newline, respectively.  Also, the
@samp{.} and @samp{[^...]} operators will never match a newline
character.  The intent of this flag is to treat the target
string as a buffer containing many lines of text, and the
regular expression as a pattern that may match a single one of
those lines.
@end defvar

@defvar regexp/basic
Compile a basic (``obsolete'') regexp instead of the extended
(``modern'') regexps that are the default.  Basic regexps do
not consider @samp{|}, @samp{+} or @samp{?} to be special
characters, and require the @samp{@{...@}} and @samp{(...)}
metacharacters to be backslash-escaped (@pxref{Backslash
Escapes}).  There are several other differences between basic
and extended regular expressions, but these are the most
significant.
@end defvar

@defvar regexp/extended
Compile an extended regular expression rather than a basic
regexp.  This is the default behavior; this flag will not
usually be needed.  If a call to @code{make-regexp} includes
both @code{regexp/basic} and @code{regexp/extended} flags, the
one which comes last will override the earlier one.
@end defvar
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} regexp-exec rx str [start [flags]]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_regexp_exec (rx, str, start, flags)
Match the compiled regular expression @var{rx} against
@code{str}.  If the optional integer @var{start} argument is
provided, begin matching from that position in the string.
Return a match structure describing the results of the match,
or @code{#f} if no match could be found.

The @var{flags} argument changes the matching behavior.  The following
flag values may be supplied, use @code{logior} (@pxref{Bitwise
Operations}) to combine them,

@defvar regexp/notbol
Consider that the @var{start} offset into @var{str} is not the
beginning of a line and should not match operator @samp{^}.

If @var{rx} was created with the @code{regexp/newline} option above,
@samp{^} will still match after a newline in @var{str}.
@end defvar

@defvar regexp/noteol
Consider that the end of @var{str} is not the end of a line and should
not match operator @samp{$}.

If @var{rx} was created with the @code{regexp/newline} option above,
@samp{$} will still match before a newline in @var{str}.
@end defvar
@end deffn

@lisp
;; Regexp to match uppercase letters
(define r (make-regexp "[A-Z]*"))

;; Regexp to match letters, ignoring case
(define ri (make-regexp "[A-Z]*" regexp/icase))

;; Search for bob using regexp r
(match:substring (regexp-exec r "bob"))
@result{} ""                  ; no match

;; Search for bob using regexp ri
(match:substring (regexp-exec ri "Bob"))
@result{} "Bob"               ; matched case insensitive
@end lisp

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} regexp? obj
@deffnx {C Function} scm_regexp_p (obj)
Return @code{#t} if @var{obj} is a compiled regular expression,
or @code{#f} otherwise.
@end deffn

@sp 1
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} list-matches regexp str [flags]
Return a list of match structures which are the non-overlapping
matches of @var{regexp} in @var{str}.  @var{regexp} can be either a
pattern string or a compiled regexp.  The @var{flags} argument is as
per @code{regexp-exec} above.

@example
(map match:substring (list-matches "[a-z]+" "abc 42 def 78"))
@result{} ("abc" "def")
@end  example
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} fold-matches regexp str init proc [flags]
Apply @var{proc} to the non-overlapping matches of @var{regexp} in
@var{str}, to build a result.  @var{regexp} can be either a pattern
string or a compiled regexp.  The @var{flags} argument is as per
@code{regexp-exec} above.

@var{proc} is called as @code{(@var{proc} match prev)} where
@var{match} is a match structure and @var{prev} is the previous return
from @var{proc}.  For the first call @var{prev} is the given
@var{init} parameter.  @code{fold-matches} returns the final value
from @var{proc}.

For example to count matches,

@example
(fold-matches "[a-z][0-9]" "abc x1 def y2" 0
              (lambda (match count)
                (1+ count)))
@result{} 2
@end example
@end deffn

@sp 1
Regular expressions are commonly used to find patterns in one string
and replace them with the contents of another string.  The following
functions are convenient ways to do this.

@c begin (scm-doc-string "regex.scm" "regexp-substitute")
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} regexp-substitute port match [item@dots{}]
Write to @var{port} selected parts of the match structure @var{match}.
Or if @var{port} is @code{#f} then form a string from those parts and
return that.

Each @var{item} specifies a part to be written, and may be one of the
following,

@itemize @bullet
@item
A string.  String arguments are written out verbatim.

@item
An integer.  The submatch with that number is written
(@code{match:substring}).  Zero is the entire match.

@item
The symbol @samp{pre}.  The portion of the matched string preceding
the regexp match is written (@code{match:prefix}).

@item
The symbol @samp{post}.  The portion of the matched string following
the regexp match is written (@code{match:suffix}).
@end itemize

For example, changing a match and retaining the text before and after,

@example
(regexp-substitute #f (string-match "[0-9]+" "number 25 is good")
                   'pre "37" 'post)
@result{} "number 37 is good"
@end example

Or matching a @sc{yyyymmdd} format date such as @samp{20020828} and
re-ordering and hyphenating the fields.

@lisp
(define date-regex
   "([0-9][0-9][0-9][0-9])([0-9][0-9])([0-9][0-9])")
(define s "Date 20020429 12am.")
(regexp-substitute #f (string-match date-regex s)
                   'pre 2 "-" 3 "-" 1 'post " (" 0 ")")
@result{} "Date 04-29-2002 12am. (20020429)"
@end lisp
@end deffn


@c begin (scm-doc-string "regex.scm" "regexp-substitute")
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} regexp-substitute/global port regexp target [item@dots{}]
@cindex search and replace
Write to @var{port} selected parts of matches of @var{regexp} in
@var{target}.  If @var{port} is @code{#f} then form a string from
those parts and return that.  @var{regexp} can be a string or a
compiled regex.

This is similar to @code{regexp-substitute}, but allows global
substitutions on @var{target}.  Each @var{item} behaves as per
@code{regexp-substitute}, with the following differences,

@itemize @bullet
@item
A function.  Called as @code{(@var{item} match)} with the match
structure for the @var{regexp} match, it should return a string to be
written to @var{port}.

@item
The symbol @samp{post}.  This doesn't output anything, but instead
causes @code{regexp-substitute/global} to recurse on the unmatched
portion of @var{target}.

This @emph{must} be supplied to perform a global search and replace on
@var{target}; without it @code{regexp-substitute/global} returns after
a single match and output.
@end itemize

For example, to collapse runs of tabs and spaces to a single hyphen
each,

@example
(regexp-substitute/global #f "[ \t]+"  "this   is   the text"
                          'pre "-" 'post)
@result{} "this-is-the-text"
@end example

Or using a function to reverse the letters in each word,

@example
(regexp-substitute/global #f "[a-z]+"  "to do and not-do"
  'pre (lambda (m) (string-reverse (match:substring m))) 'post)
@result{} "ot od dna ton-od"
@end example

Without the @code{post} symbol, just one regexp match is made.  For
example the following is the date example from
@code{regexp-substitute} above, without the need for the separate
@code{string-match} call.

@lisp
(define date-regex 
   "([0-9][0-9][0-9][0-9])([0-9][0-9])([0-9][0-9])")
(define s "Date 20020429 12am.")
(regexp-substitute/global #f date-regex s
                          'pre 2 "-" 3 "-" 1 'post " (" 0 ")")

@result{} "Date 04-29-2002 12am. (20020429)"
@end lisp
@end deffn


@node Match Structures
@subsubsection Match Structures

@cindex match structures

A @dfn{match structure} is the object returned by @code{string-match} and
@code{regexp-exec}.  It describes which portion of a string, if any,
matched the given regular expression.  Match structures include: a
reference to the string that was checked for matches; the starting and
ending positions of the regexp match; and, if the regexp included any
parenthesized subexpressions, the starting and ending positions of each
submatch.

In each of the regexp match functions described below, the @code{match}
argument must be a match structure returned by a previous call to
@code{string-match} or @code{regexp-exec}.  Most of these functions
return some information about the original target string that was
matched against a regular expression; we will call that string
@var{target} for easy reference.

@c begin (scm-doc-string "regex.scm" "regexp-match?")
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} regexp-match? obj
Return @code{#t} if @var{obj} is a match structure returned by a
previous call to @code{regexp-exec}, or @code{#f} otherwise.
@end deffn

@c begin (scm-doc-string "regex.scm" "match:substring")
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} match:substring match [n]
Return the portion of @var{target} matched by subexpression number
@var{n}.  Submatch 0 (the default) represents the entire regexp match.
If the regular expression as a whole matched, but the subexpression
number @var{n} did not match, return @code{#f}.
@end deffn

@lisp
(define s (string-match "[0-9][0-9][0-9][0-9]" "blah2002foo"))
(match:substring s)
@result{} "2002"

;; match starting at offset 6 in the string
(match:substring
  (string-match "[0-9][0-9][0-9][0-9]" "blah987654" 6))
@result{} "7654"
@end lisp

@c begin (scm-doc-string "regex.scm" "match:start")
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} match:start match [n]
Return the starting position of submatch number @var{n}.
@end deffn

In the following example, the result is 4, since the match starts at
character index 4:

@lisp
(define s (string-match "[0-9][0-9][0-9][0-9]" "blah2002foo"))
(match:start s)
@result{} 4
@end lisp

@c begin (scm-doc-string "regex.scm" "match:end")
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} match:end match [n]
Return the ending position of submatch number @var{n}.
@end deffn

In the following example, the result is 8, since the match runs between
characters 4 and 8 (i.e. the ``2002'').

@lisp
(define s (string-match "[0-9][0-9][0-9][0-9]" "blah2002foo"))
(match:end s)
@result{} 8
@end lisp

@c begin (scm-doc-string "regex.scm" "match:prefix")
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} match:prefix match
Return the unmatched portion of @var{target} preceding the regexp match.

@lisp
(define s (string-match "[0-9][0-9][0-9][0-9]" "blah2002foo"))
(match:prefix s)
@result{} "blah"
@end lisp
@end deffn

@c begin (scm-doc-string "regex.scm" "match:suffix")
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} match:suffix match
Return the unmatched portion of @var{target} following the regexp match.
@end deffn

@lisp
(define s (string-match "[0-9][0-9][0-9][0-9]" "blah2002foo"))
(match:suffix s)
@result{} "foo"
@end lisp

@c begin (scm-doc-string "regex.scm" "match:count")
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} match:count match
Return the number of parenthesized subexpressions from @var{match}.
Note that the entire regular expression match itself counts as a
subexpression, and failed submatches are included in the count.
@end deffn

@c begin (scm-doc-string "regex.scm" "match:string")
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} match:string match
Return the original @var{target} string.
@end deffn

@lisp
(define s (string-match "[0-9][0-9][0-9][0-9]" "blah2002foo"))
(match:string s)
@result{} "blah2002foo"
@end lisp


@node Backslash Escapes
@subsubsection Backslash Escapes

Sometimes you will want a regexp to match characters like @samp{*} or
@samp{$} exactly.  For example, to check whether a particular string
represents a menu entry from an Info node, it would be useful to match
it against a regexp like @samp{^* [^:]*::}.  However, this won't work;
because the asterisk is a metacharacter, it won't match the @samp{*} at
the beginning of the string.  In this case, we want to make the first
asterisk un-magic.

You can do this by preceding the metacharacter with a backslash
character @samp{\}.  (This is also called @dfn{quoting} the
metacharacter, and is known as a @dfn{backslash escape}.)  When Guile
sees a backslash in a regular expression, it considers the following
glyph to be an ordinary character, no matter what special meaning it
would ordinarily have.  Therefore, we can make the above example work by
changing the regexp to @samp{^\* [^:]*::}.  The @samp{\*} sequence tells
the regular expression engine to match only a single asterisk in the
target string.

Since the backslash is itself a metacharacter, you may force a regexp to
match a backslash in the target string by preceding the backslash with
itself.  For example, to find variable references in a @TeX{} program,
you might want to find occurrences of the string @samp{\let\} followed
by any number of alphabetic characters.  The regular expression
@samp{\\let\\[A-Za-z]*} would do this: the double backslashes in the
regexp each match a single backslash in the target string.

@c begin (scm-doc-string "regex.scm" "regexp-quote")
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} regexp-quote str
Quote each special character found in @var{str} with a backslash, and
return the resulting string.
@end deffn

@strong{Very important:} Using backslash escapes in Guile source code
(as in Emacs Lisp or C) can be tricky, because the backslash character
has special meaning for the Guile reader.  For example, if Guile
encounters the character sequence @samp{\n} in the middle of a string
while processing Scheme code, it replaces those characters with a
newline character.  Similarly, the character sequence @samp{\t} is
replaced by a horizontal tab.  Several of these @dfn{escape sequences}
are processed by the Guile reader before your code is executed.
Unrecognized escape sequences are ignored: if the characters @samp{\*}
appear in a string, they will be translated to the single character
@samp{*}.

This translation is obviously undesirable for regular expressions, since
we want to be able to include backslashes in a string in order to
escape regexp metacharacters.  Therefore, to make sure that a backslash
is preserved in a string in your Guile program, you must use @emph{two}
consecutive backslashes:

@lisp
(define Info-menu-entry-pattern (make-regexp "^\\* [^:]*"))
@end lisp

The string in this example is preprocessed by the Guile reader before
any code is executed.  The resulting argument to @code{make-regexp} is
the string @samp{^\* [^:]*}, which is what we really want.

This also means that in order to write a regular expression that matches
a single backslash character, the regular expression string in the
source code must include @emph{four} backslashes.  Each consecutive pair
of backslashes gets translated by the Guile reader to a single
backslash, and the resulting double-backslash is interpreted by the
regexp engine as matching a single backslash character.  Hence:

@lisp
(define tex-variable-pattern (make-regexp "\\\\let\\\\=[A-Za-z]*"))
@end lisp

The reason for the unwieldiness of this syntax is historical.  Both
regular expression pattern matchers and Unix string processing systems
have traditionally used backslashes with the special meanings
described above.  The POSIX regular expression specification and ANSI C
standard both require these semantics.  Attempting to abandon either
convention would cause other kinds of compatibility problems, possibly
more severe ones.  Therefore, without extending the Scheme reader to
support strings with different quoting conventions (an ungainly and
confusing extension when implemented in other languages), we must adhere
to this cumbersome escape syntax.


@node Symbols
@subsection Symbols
@tpindex Symbols

Symbols in Scheme are widely used in three ways: as items of discrete
data, as lookup keys for alists and hash tables, and to denote variable
references.

A @dfn{symbol} is similar to a string in that it is defined by a
sequence of characters.  The sequence of characters is known as the
symbol's @dfn{name}.  In the usual case --- that is, where the symbol's
name doesn't include any characters that could be confused with other
elements of Scheme syntax --- a symbol is written in a Scheme program by
writing the sequence of characters that make up the name, @emph{without}
any quotation marks or other special syntax.  For example, the symbol
whose name is ``multiply-by-2'' is written, simply:

@lisp
multiply-by-2
@end lisp

Notice how this differs from a @emph{string} with contents
``multiply-by-2'', which is written with double quotation marks, like
this:

@lisp
"multiply-by-2"
@end lisp

Looking beyond how they are written, symbols are different from strings
in two important respects.

The first important difference is uniqueness.  If the same-looking
string is read twice from two different places in a program, the result
is two @emph{different} string objects whose contents just happen to be
the same.  If, on the other hand, the same-looking symbol is read twice
from two different places in a program, the result is the @emph{same}
symbol object both times.

Given two read symbols, you can use @code{eq?} to test whether they are
the same (that is, have the same name).  @code{eq?} is the most
efficient comparison operator in Scheme, and comparing two symbols like
this is as fast as comparing, for example, two numbers.  Given two
strings, on the other hand, you must use @code{equal?} or
@code{string=?}, which are much slower comparison operators, to
determine whether the strings have the same contents.

@lisp
(define sym1 (quote hello))
(define sym2 (quote hello))
(eq? sym1 sym2) @result{} #t

(define str1 "hello")
(define str2 "hello")
(eq? str1 str2) @result{} #f
(equal? str1 str2) @result{} #t
@end lisp

The second important difference is that symbols, unlike strings, are not
self-evaluating.  This is why we need the @code{(quote @dots{})}s in the
example above: @code{(quote hello)} evaluates to the symbol named
"hello" itself, whereas an unquoted @code{hello} is @emph{read} as the
symbol named "hello" and evaluated as a variable reference @dots{} about
which more below (@pxref{Symbol Variables}).

@menu
* Symbol Data::                 Symbols as discrete data.
* Symbol Keys::                 Symbols as lookup keys.
* Symbol Variables::            Symbols as denoting variables.
* Symbol Primitives::           Operations related to symbols.
* Symbol Props::                Function slots and property lists.
* Symbol Read Syntax::          Extended read syntax for symbols.
* Symbol Uninterned::           Uninterned symbols.
@end menu


@node Symbol Data
@subsubsection Symbols as Discrete Data

Numbers and symbols are similar to the extent that they both lend
themselves to @code{eq?} comparison.  But symbols are more descriptive
than numbers, because a symbol's name can be used directly to describe
the concept for which that symbol stands.

For example, imagine that you need to represent some colours in a
computer program.  Using numbers, you would have to choose arbitrarily
some mapping between numbers and colours, and then take care to use that
mapping consistently:

@lisp
;; 1=red, 2=green, 3=purple

(if (eq? (colour-of car) 1)
    ...)
@end lisp

@noindent
You can make the mapping more explicit and the code more readable by
defining constants:

@lisp
(define red 1)
(define green 2)
(define purple 3)

(if (eq? (colour-of car) red)
    ...)
@end lisp

@noindent
But the simplest and clearest approach is not to use numbers at all, but
symbols whose names specify the colours that they refer to:

@lisp
(if (eq? (colour-of car) 'red)
    ...)
@end lisp

The descriptive advantages of symbols over numbers increase as the set
of concepts that you want to describe grows.  Suppose that a car object
can have other properties as well, such as whether it has or uses:

@itemize @bullet
@item
automatic or manual transmission
@item
leaded or unleaded fuel
@item
power steering (or not).
@end itemize

@noindent
Then a car's combined property set could be naturally represented and
manipulated as a list of symbols:

@lisp
(properties-of car1)
@result{}
(red manual unleaded power-steering)

(if (memq 'power-steering (properties-of car1))
    (display "Unfit people can drive this car.\n")
    (display "You'll need strong arms to drive this car!\n"))
@print{}
Unfit people can drive this car.
@end lisp

Remember, the fundamental property of symbols that we are relying on
here is that an occurrence of @code{'red} in one part of a program is an
@emph{indistinguishable} symbol from an occurrence of @code{'red} in
another part of a program; this means that symbols can usefully be
compared using @code{eq?}.  At the same time, symbols have naturally
descriptive names.  This combination of efficiency and descriptive power
makes them ideal for use as discrete data.


@node Symbol Keys
@subsubsection Symbols as Lookup Keys

Given their efficiency and descriptive power, it is natural to use
symbols as the keys in an association list or hash table.

To illustrate this, consider a more structured representation of the car
properties example from the preceding subsection.  Rather than
mixing all the properties up together in a flat list, we could use an
association list like this:

@lisp
(define car1-properties '((colour . red)
                          (transmission . manual)
                          (fuel . unleaded)
                          (steering . power-assisted)))
@end lisp

Notice how this structure is more explicit and extensible than the flat
list.  For example it makes clear that @code{manual} refers to the
transmission rather than, say, the windows or the locking of the car.
It also allows further properties to use the same symbols among their
possible values without becoming ambiguous:

@lisp
(define car1-properties '((colour . red)
                          (transmission . manual)
                          (fuel . unleaded)
                          (steering . power-assisted)
                          (seat-colour . red)
                          (locking . manual)))
@end lisp

With a representation like this, it is easy to use the efficient
@code{assq-XXX} family of procedures (@pxref{Association Lists}) to
extract or change individual pieces of information:

@lisp
(assq-ref car1-properties 'fuel) @result{} unleaded
(assq-ref car1-properties 'transmission) @result{} manual

(assq-set! car1-properties 'seat-colour 'black)
@result{}
((colour . red)
 (transmission . manual)
 (fuel . unleaded)
 (steering . power-assisted)
 (seat-colour . black)
 (locking . manual)))
@end lisp

Hash tables also have keys, and exactly the same arguments apply to the
use of symbols in hash tables as in association lists.  The hash value
that Guile uses to decide where to add a symbol-keyed entry to a hash
table can be obtained by calling the @code{symbol-hash} procedure:

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} symbol-hash symbol
@deffnx {C Function} scm_symbol_hash (symbol)
Return a hash value for @var{symbol}.
@end deffn

See @ref{Hash Tables} for information about hash tables in general, and
for why you might choose to use a hash table rather than an association
list.


@node Symbol Variables
@subsubsection Symbols as Denoting Variables

When an unquoted symbol in a Scheme program is evaluated, it is
interpreted as a variable reference, and the result of the evaluation is
the appropriate variable's value.

For example, when the expression @code{(string-length "abcd")} is read
and evaluated, the sequence of characters @code{string-length} is read
as the symbol whose name is "string-length".  This symbol is associated
with a variable whose value is the procedure that implements string
length calculation.  Therefore evaluation of the @code{string-length}
symbol results in that procedure.

The details of the connection between an unquoted symbol and the
variable to which it refers are explained elsewhere.  See @ref{Binding
Constructs}, for how associations between symbols and variables are
created, and @ref{Modules}, for how those associations are affected by
Guile's module system.


@node Symbol Primitives
@subsubsection Operations Related to Symbols

Given any Scheme value, you can determine whether it is a symbol using
the @code{symbol?} primitive:

@rnindex symbol?
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} symbol? obj
@deffnx {C Function} scm_symbol_p (obj)
Return @code{#t} if @var{obj} is a symbol, otherwise return
@code{#f}.
@end deffn

@deftypefn {C Function} int scm_is_symbol (SCM val)
Equivalent to @code{scm_is_true (scm_symbol_p (val))}.
@end deftypefn

Once you know that you have a symbol, you can obtain its name as a
string by calling @code{symbol->string}.  Note that Guile differs by
default from R5RS on the details of @code{symbol->string} as regards
case-sensitivity:

@rnindex symbol->string
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} symbol->string s
@deffnx {C Function} scm_symbol_to_string (s)
Return the name of symbol @var{s} as a string.  By default, Guile reads
symbols case-sensitively, so the string returned will have the same case
variation as the sequence of characters that caused @var{s} to be
created.

If Guile is set to read symbols case-insensitively (as specified by
R5RS), and @var{s} comes into being as part of a literal expression
(@pxref{Literal expressions,,,r5rs, The Revised^5 Report on Scheme}) or
by a call to the @code{read} or @code{string-ci->symbol} procedures,
Guile converts any alphabetic characters in the symbol's name to
lower case before creating the symbol object, so the string returned
here will be in lower case.

If @var{s} was created by @code{string->symbol}, the case of characters
in the string returned will be the same as that in the string that was
passed to @code{string->symbol}, regardless of Guile's case-sensitivity
setting at the time @var{s} was created.

It is an error to apply mutation procedures like @code{string-set!} to
strings returned by this procedure.
@end deffn

Most symbols are created by writing them literally in code.  However it
is also possible to create symbols programmatically using the following
@code{string->symbol} and @code{string-ci->symbol} procedures:

@rnindex string->symbol
@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string->symbol string
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_to_symbol (string)
Return the symbol whose name is @var{string}.  This procedure can create
symbols with names containing special characters or letters in the
non-standard case, but it is usually a bad idea to create such symbols
because in some implementations of Scheme they cannot be read as
themselves.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} string-ci->symbol str
@deffnx {C Function} scm_string_ci_to_symbol (str)
Return the symbol whose name is @var{str}.  If Guile is currently
reading symbols case-insensitively, @var{str} is converted to lowercase
before the returned symbol is looked up or created.
@end deffn

The following examples illustrate Guile's detailed behaviour as regards
the case-sensitivity of symbols:

@lisp
(read-enable 'case-insensitive)   ; R5RS compliant behaviour

(symbol->string 'flying-fish)    @result{} "flying-fish"
(symbol->string 'Martin)         @result{} "martin"
(symbol->string
   (string->symbol "Malvina"))   @result{} "Malvina"

(eq? 'mISSISSIppi 'mississippi)  @result{} #t
(string->symbol "mISSISSIppi")   @result{} mISSISSIppi
(eq? 'bitBlt (string->symbol "bitBlt")) @result{} #f
(eq? 'LolliPop
  (string->symbol (symbol->string 'LolliPop))) @result{} #t
(string=? "K. Harper, M.D."
  (symbol->string
    (string->symbol "K. Harper, M.D."))) @result{} #t

(read-disable 'case-insensitive)   ; Guile default behaviour

(symbol->string 'flying-fish)    @result{} "flying-fish"
(symbol->string 'Martin)         @result{} "Martin"
(symbol->string
   (string->symbol "Malvina"))   @result{} "Malvina"

(eq? 'mISSISSIppi 'mississippi)  @result{} #f
(string->symbol "mISSISSIppi")   @result{} mISSISSIppi
(eq? 'bitBlt (string->symbol "bitBlt")) @result{} #t
(eq? 'LolliPop
  (string->symbol (symbol->string 'LolliPop))) @result{} #t
(string=? "K. Harper, M.D."
  (symbol->string
    (string->symbol "K. Harper, M.D."))) @result{} #t
@end lisp

From C, there are lower level functions that construct a Scheme symbol
from a C string in the current locale encoding.

When you want to do more from C, you should convert between symbols
and strings using @code{scm_symbol_to_string} and
@code{scm_string_to_symbol} and work with the strings.

@deffn {C Function} scm_from_locale_symbol (const char *name)
@deffnx {C Function} scm_from_locale_symboln (const char *name, size_t len)
Construct and return a Scheme symbol whose name is specified by
@var{name}.  For @code{scm_from_locale_symbol}, @var{name} must be null
terminated; for @code{scm_from_locale_symboln} the length of @var{name} is
specified explicitly by @var{len}.
@end deffn

@deftypefn  {C Function} SCM scm_take_locale_symbol (char *str)
@deftypefnx {C Function} SCM scm_take_locale_symboln (char *str, size_t len)
Like @code{scm_from_locale_symbol} and @code{scm_from_locale_symboln},
respectively, but also frees @var{str} with @code{free} eventually.
Thus, you can use this function when you would free @var{str} anyway
immediately after creating the Scheme string.  In certain cases, Guile
can then use @var{str} directly as its internal representation.
@end deftypefn

The size of a symbol can also be obtained from C:

@deftypefn {C Function} size_t scm_c_symbol_length (SCM sym)
Return the number of characters in @var{sym}.
@end deftypefn

Finally, some applications, especially those that generate new Scheme
code dynamically, need to generate symbols for use in the generated
code.  The @code{gensym} primitive meets this need:

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} gensym [prefix]
@deffnx {C Function} scm_gensym (prefix)
Create a new symbol with a name constructed from a prefix and a counter
value.  The string @var{prefix} can be specified as an optional
argument.  Default prefix is @samp{@w{ g}}.  The counter is increased by 1
at each call.  There is no provision for resetting the counter.
@end deffn

The symbols generated by @code{gensym} are @emph{likely} to be unique,
since their names begin with a space and it is only otherwise possible
to generate such symbols if a programmer goes out of their way to do
so.  Uniqueness can be guaranteed by instead using uninterned symbols
(@pxref{Symbol Uninterned}), though they can't be usefully written out
and read back in.


@node Symbol Props
@subsubsection Function Slots and Property Lists

In traditional Lisp dialects, symbols are often understood as having
three kinds of value at once:

@itemize @bullet
@item
a @dfn{variable} value, which is used when the symbol appears in
code in a variable reference context

@item
a @dfn{function} value, which is used when the symbol appears in
code in a function name position (i.e. as the first element in an
unquoted list)

@item
a @dfn{property list} value, which is used when the symbol is given as
the first argument to Lisp's @code{put} or @code{get} functions.
@end itemize

Although Scheme (as one of its simplifications with respect to Lisp)
does away with the distinction between variable and function namespaces,
Guile currently retains some elements of the traditional structure in
case they turn out to be useful when implementing translators for other
languages, in particular Emacs Lisp.

Specifically, Guile symbols have two extra slots. for a symbol's
property list, and for its ``function value.''  The following procedures
are provided to access these slots.

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} symbol-fref symbol
@deffnx {C Function} scm_symbol_fref (symbol)
Return the contents of @var{symbol}'s @dfn{function slot}.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} symbol-fset! symbol value
@deffnx {C Function} scm_symbol_fset_x (symbol, value)
Set the contents of @var{symbol}'s function slot to @var{value}.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} symbol-pref symbol
@deffnx {C Function} scm_symbol_pref (symbol)
Return the @dfn{property list} currently associated with @var{symbol}.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} symbol-pset! symbol value
@deffnx {C Function} scm_symbol_pset_x (symbol, value)
Set @var{symbol}'s property list to @var{value}.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} symbol-property sym prop
From @var{sym}'s property list, return the value for property
@var{prop}.  The assumption is that @var{sym}'s property list is an
association list whose keys are distinguished from each other using
@code{equal?}; @var{prop} should be one of the keys in that list.  If
the property list has no entry for @var{prop}, @code{symbol-property}
returns @code{#f}.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} set-symbol-property! sym prop val
In @var{sym}'s property list, set the value for property @var{prop} to
@var{val}, or add a new entry for @var{prop}, with value @var{val}, if
none already exists.  For the structure of the property list, see
@code{symbol-property}.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} symbol-property-remove! sym prop
From @var{sym}'s property list, remove the entry for property
@var{prop}, if there is one.  For the structure of the property list,
see @code{symbol-property}.
@end deffn

Support for these extra slots may be removed in a future release, and it
is probably better to avoid using them.  For a more modern and Schemely
approach to properties, see @ref{Object Properties}.


@node Symbol Read Syntax
@subsubsection Extended Read Syntax for Symbols

The read syntax for a symbol is a sequence of letters, digits, and
@dfn{extended alphabetic characters}, beginning with a character that
cannot begin a number.  In addition, the special cases of @code{+},
@code{-}, and @code{...} are read as symbols even though numbers can
begin with @code{+}, @code{-} or @code{.}.

Extended alphabetic characters may be used within identifiers as if
they were letters.  The set of extended alphabetic characters is:

@example
! $ % & * + - . / : < = > ? @@ ^ _ ~
@end example

In addition to the standard read syntax defined above (which is taken
from R5RS (@pxref{Formal syntax,,,r5rs,The Revised^5 Report on
Scheme})), Guile provides an extended symbol read syntax that allows the
inclusion of unusual characters such as space characters, newlines and
parentheses.  If (for whatever reason) you need to write a symbol
containing characters not mentioned above, you can do so as follows.

@itemize @bullet
@item
Begin the symbol with the characters @code{#@{},

@item
write the characters of the symbol and

@item
finish the symbol with the characters @code{@}#}.
@end itemize

Here are a few examples of this form of read syntax.  The first symbol
needs to use extended syntax because it contains a space character, the
second because it contains a line break, and the last because it looks
like a number.

@lisp
#@{foo bar@}#

#@{what
ever@}#

#@{4242@}#
@end lisp

Although Guile provides this extended read syntax for symbols,
widespread usage of it is discouraged because it is not portable and not
very readable.


@node Symbol Uninterned
@subsubsection Uninterned Symbols

What makes symbols useful is that they are automatically kept unique.
There are no two symbols that are distinct objects but have the same
name.  But of course, there is no rule without exception.  In addition
to the normal symbols that have been discussed up to now, you can also
create special @dfn{uninterned} symbols that behave slightly
differently.

To understand what is different about them and why they might be useful,
we look at how normal symbols are actually kept unique.

Whenever Guile wants to find the symbol with a specific name, for
example during @code{read} or when executing @code{string->symbol}, it
first looks into a table of all existing symbols to find out whether a
symbol with the given name already exists.  When this is the case, Guile
just returns that symbol.  When not, a new symbol with the name is
created and entered into the table so that it can be found later.

Sometimes you might want to create a symbol that is guaranteed `fresh',
i.e. a symbol that did not exist previously.  You might also want to
somehow guarantee that no one else will ever unintentionally stumble
across your symbol in the future.  These properties of a symbol are
often needed when generating code during macro expansion.  When
introducing new temporary variables, you want to guarantee that they
don't conflict with variables in other people's code.

The simplest way to arrange for this is to create a new symbol but
not enter it into the global table of all symbols.  That way, no one
will ever get access to your symbol by chance.  Symbols that are not in
the table are called @dfn{uninterned}.  Of course, symbols that
@emph{are} in the table are called @dfn{interned}.

You create new uninterned symbols with the function @code{make-symbol}.
You can test whether a symbol is interned or not with
@code{symbol-interned?}.

Uninterned symbols break the rule that the name of a symbol uniquely
identifies the symbol object.  Because of this, they can not be written
out and read back in like interned symbols.  Currently, Guile has no
support for reading uninterned symbols.  Note that the function
@code{gensym} does not return uninterned symbols for this reason.

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} make-symbol name
@deffnx {C Function} scm_make_symbol (name)
Return a new uninterned symbol with the name @var{name}.  The returned
symbol is guaranteed to be unique and future calls to
@code{string->symbol} will not return it.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} symbol-interned? symbol
@deffnx {C Function} scm_symbol_interned_p (symbol)
Return @code{#t} if @var{symbol} is interned, otherwise return
@code{#f}.
@end deffn

For example:

@lisp
(define foo-1 (string->symbol "foo"))
(define foo-2 (string->symbol "foo"))
(define foo-3 (make-symbol "foo"))
(define foo-4 (make-symbol "foo"))

(eq? foo-1 foo-2)
@result{} #t
; Two interned symbols with the same name are the same object,

(eq? foo-1 foo-3)
@result{} #f
; but a call to make-symbol with the same name returns a
; distinct object.

(eq? foo-3 foo-4)
@result{} #f
; A call to make-symbol always returns a new object, even for
; the same name.

foo-3
@result{} #<uninterned-symbol foo 8085290>
; Uninterned symbols print differently from interned symbols,

(symbol? foo-3)
@result{} #t
; but they are still symbols,

(symbol-interned? foo-3)
@result{} #f
; just not interned.
@end lisp


@node Keywords
@subsection Keywords
@tpindex Keywords

Keywords are self-evaluating objects with a convenient read syntax that
makes them easy to type.

Guile's keyword support conforms to R5RS, and adds a (switchable) read
syntax extension to permit keywords to begin with @code{:} as well as
@code{#:}, or to end with @code{:}.

@menu
* Why Use Keywords?::           Motivation for keyword usage.
* Coding With Keywords::        How to use keywords.
* Keyword Read Syntax::         Read syntax for keywords.
* Keyword Procedures::          Procedures for dealing with keywords.
@end menu

@node Why Use Keywords?
@subsubsection Why Use Keywords?

Keywords are useful in contexts where a program or procedure wants to be
able to accept a large number of optional arguments without making its
interface unmanageable.

To illustrate this, consider a hypothetical @code{make-window}
procedure, which creates a new window on the screen for drawing into
using some graphical toolkit.  There are many parameters that the caller
might like to specify, but which could also be sensibly defaulted, for
example:

@itemize @bullet
@item
color depth -- Default: the color depth for the screen

@item
background color -- Default: white

@item
width -- Default: 600

@item
height -- Default: 400
@end itemize

If @code{make-window} did not use keywords, the caller would have to
pass in a value for each possible argument, remembering the correct
argument order and using a special value to indicate the default value
for that argument:

@lisp
(make-window 'default              ;; Color depth
             'default              ;; Background color
             800                   ;; Width
             100                   ;; Height
             @dots{})                  ;; More make-window arguments
@end lisp

With keywords, on the other hand, defaulted arguments are omitted, and
non-default arguments are clearly tagged by the appropriate keyword.  As
a result, the invocation becomes much clearer:

@lisp
(make-window #:width 800 #:height 100)
@end lisp

On the other hand, for a simpler procedure with few arguments, the use
of keywords would be a hindrance rather than a help.  The primitive
procedure @code{cons}, for example, would not be improved if it had to
be invoked as

@lisp
(cons #:car x #:cdr y)
@end lisp

So the decision whether to use keywords or not is purely pragmatic: use
them if they will clarify the procedure invocation at point of call.

@node Coding With Keywords
@subsubsection Coding With Keywords

If a procedure wants to support keywords, it should take a rest argument
and then use whatever means is convenient to extract keywords and their
corresponding arguments from the contents of that rest argument.

The following example illustrates the principle: the code for
@code{make-window} uses a helper procedure called
@code{get-keyword-value} to extract individual keyword arguments from
the rest argument.

@lisp
(define (get-keyword-value args keyword default)
  (let ((kv (memq keyword args)))
    (if (and kv (>= (length kv) 2))
        (cadr kv)
        default)))

(define (make-window . args)
  (let ((depth  (get-keyword-value args #:depth  screen-depth))
        (bg     (get-keyword-value args #:bg     "white"))
        (width  (get-keyword-value args #:width  800))
        (height (get-keyword-value args #:height 100))
        @dots{})
    @dots{}))
@end lisp

But you don't need to write @code{get-keyword-value}.  The @code{(ice-9
optargs)} module provides a set of powerful macros that you can use to
implement keyword-supporting procedures like this:

@lisp
(use-modules (ice-9 optargs))

(define (make-window . args)
  (let-keywords args #f ((depth  screen-depth)
                         (bg     "white")
                         (width  800)
                         (height 100))
    ...))
@end lisp

@noindent
Or, even more economically, like this:

@lisp
(use-modules (ice-9 optargs))

(define* (make-window #:key (depth  screen-depth)
                            (bg     "white")
                            (width  800)
                            (height 100))
  ...)
@end lisp

For further details on @code{let-keywords}, @code{define*} and other
facilities provided by the @code{(ice-9 optargs)} module, see
@ref{Optional Arguments}.


@node Keyword Read Syntax
@subsubsection Keyword Read Syntax

Guile, by default, only recognizes a keyword syntax that is compatible
with R5RS.  A token of the form @code{#:NAME}, where @code{NAME} has the
same syntax as a Scheme symbol (@pxref{Symbol Read Syntax}), is the
external representation of the keyword named @code{NAME}.  Keyword
objects print using this syntax as well, so values containing keyword
objects can be read back into Guile.  When used in an expression,
keywords are self-quoting objects.

If the @code{keyword} read option is set to @code{'prefix}, Guile also
recognizes the alternative read syntax @code{:NAME}.  Otherwise, tokens
of the form @code{:NAME} are read as symbols, as required by R5RS.

@cindex SRFI-88 keyword syntax

If the @code{keyword} read option is set to @code{'postfix}, Guile
recognizes the SRFI-88 read syntax @code{NAME:} (@pxref{SRFI-88}).
Otherwise, tokens of this form are read as symbols.

To enable and disable the alternative non-R5RS keyword syntax, you use
the @code{read-set!} procedure documented in @ref{User level options
interfaces} and @ref{Reader options}.  Note that the @code{prefix} and
@code{postfix} syntax are mutually exclusive.

@lisp
(read-set! keywords 'prefix)

#:type
@result{}
#:type

:type
@result{}
#:type

(read-set! keywords 'postfix)

type:
@result{}
#:type

:type
@result{}
:type

(read-set! keywords #f)

#:type
@result{}
#:type

:type
@print{}
ERROR: In expression :type:
ERROR: Unbound variable: :type
ABORT: (unbound-variable)
@end lisp

@node Keyword Procedures
@subsubsection Keyword Procedures

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} keyword? obj
@deffnx {C Function} scm_keyword_p (obj)
Return @code{#t} if the argument @var{obj} is a keyword, else
@code{#f}.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} keyword->symbol keyword
@deffnx {C Function} scm_keyword_to_symbol (keyword)
Return the symbol with the same name as @var{keyword}.
@end deffn

@deffn {Scheme Procedure} symbol->keyword symbol
@deffnx {C Function} scm_symbol_to_keyword (symbol)
Return the keyword with the same name as @var{symbol}.
@end deffn

@deftypefn {C Function} int scm_is_keyword (SCM obj)
Equivalent to @code{scm_is_true (scm_keyword_p (@var{obj}))}.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn {C Function} SCM scm_from_locale_keyword (const char *str)
@deftypefnx {C Function} SCM scm_from_locale_keywordn (const char *str, size_t len)
Equivalent to @code{scm_symbol_to_keyword (scm_from_locale_symbol
(@var{str}))} and @code{scm_symbol_to_keyword (scm_from_locale_symboln
(@var{str}, @var{len}))}, respectively.
@end deftypefn

@node Other Types
@subsection ``Functionality-Centric'' Data Types

Procedures and macros are documented in their own chapter: see
@ref{Procedures and Macros}.

Variable objects are documented as part of the description of Guile's
module system: see @ref{Variables}.

Asyncs, dynamic roots and fluids are described in the chapter on
scheduling: see @ref{Scheduling}.

Hooks are documented in the chapter on general utility functions: see
@ref{Hooks}.

Ports are described in the chapter on I/O: see @ref{Input and Output}.


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