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1 | @c -*-texinfo-*- |
2 | @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual. | |
651f374c | 3 | @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1998, 1999, 2002, 2003, |
ceb4c4d3 | 4 | @c 2004, 2005, 2006 Free Software Foundation, Inc. |
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5 | @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions. |
6 | @setfilename ../info/objects | |
2b3fc6c3 | 7 | @node Lisp Data Types, Numbers, Introduction, Top |
5b359918 RS |
8 | @chapter Lisp Data Types |
9 | @cindex object | |
10 | @cindex Lisp object | |
11 | @cindex type | |
12 | @cindex data type | |
13 | ||
14 | A Lisp @dfn{object} is a piece of data used and manipulated by Lisp | |
15 | programs. For our purposes, a @dfn{type} or @dfn{data type} is a set of | |
16 | possible objects. | |
17 | ||
18 | Every object belongs to at least one type. Objects of the same type | |
19 | have similar structures and may usually be used in the same contexts. | |
20 | Types can overlap, and objects can belong to two or more types. | |
21 | Consequently, we can ask whether an object belongs to a particular type, | |
22 | but not for ``the'' type of an object. | |
23 | ||
24 | @cindex primitive type | |
25 | A few fundamental object types are built into Emacs. These, from | |
a61b9217 GM |
26 | which all other types are constructed, are called @dfn{primitive types}. |
27 | Each object belongs to one and only one primitive type. These types | |
28 | include @dfn{integer}, @dfn{float}, @dfn{cons}, @dfn{symbol}, | |
29 | @dfn{string}, @dfn{vector}, @dfn{hash-table}, @dfn{subr}, and | |
30 | @dfn{byte-code function}, plus several special types, such as | |
31 | @dfn{buffer}, that are related to editing. (@xref{Editing Types}.) | |
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32 | |
33 | Each primitive type has a corresponding Lisp function that checks | |
34 | whether an object is a member of that type. | |
35 | ||
36 | Note that Lisp is unlike many other languages in that Lisp objects are | |
37 | @dfn{self-typing}: the primitive type of the object is implicit in the | |
38 | object itself. For example, if an object is a vector, nothing can treat | |
39 | it as a number; Lisp knows it is a vector, not a number. | |
40 | ||
41 | In most languages, the programmer must declare the data type of each | |
42 | variable, and the type is known by the compiler but not represented in | |
43 | the data. Such type declarations do not exist in Emacs Lisp. A Lisp | |
2b3fc6c3 | 44 | variable can have any type of value, and it remembers whatever value |
b51785c1 LT |
45 | you store in it, type and all. (Actually, a small number of Emacs |
46 | Lisp variables can only take on values of a certain type. | |
47 | @xref{Variables with Restricted Values}.) | |
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48 | |
49 | This chapter describes the purpose, printed representation, and read | |
50 | syntax of each of the standard types in GNU Emacs Lisp. Details on how | |
51 | to use these types can be found in later chapters. | |
52 | ||
53 | @menu | |
54 | * Printed Representation:: How Lisp objects are represented as text. | |
55 | * Comments:: Comments and their formatting conventions. | |
56 | * Programming Types:: Types found in all Lisp systems. | |
57 | * Editing Types:: Types specific to Emacs. | |
8241495d | 58 | * Circular Objects:: Read syntax for circular structure. |
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59 | * Type Predicates:: Tests related to types. |
60 | * Equality Predicates:: Tests of equality between any two objects. | |
61 | @end menu | |
62 | ||
63 | @node Printed Representation | |
64 | @comment node-name, next, previous, up | |
65 | @section Printed Representation and Read Syntax | |
66 | @cindex printed representation | |
67 | @cindex read syntax | |
68 | ||
69 | The @dfn{printed representation} of an object is the format of the | |
70 | output generated by the Lisp printer (the function @code{prin1}) for | |
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71 | that object. Every data type has a unique printed representation. |
72 | The @dfn{read syntax} of an object is the format of the input accepted | |
73 | by the Lisp reader (the function @code{read}) for that object. This | |
74 | is not necessarily unique; many kinds of object have more than one | |
75 | syntax. @xref{Read and Print}. | |
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76 | |
77 | @cindex hash notation | |
8b480acb RS |
78 | In most cases, an object's printed representation is also a read |
79 | syntax for the object. However, some types have no read syntax, since | |
80 | it does not make sense to enter objects of these types as constants in | |
cf107ffb RS |
81 | a Lisp program. These objects are printed in @dfn{hash notation}, |
82 | which consists of the characters @samp{#<}, a descriptive string | |
83 | (typically the type name followed by the name of the object), and a | |
84 | closing @samp{>}. For example: | |
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85 | |
86 | @example | |
87 | (current-buffer) | |
88 | @result{} #<buffer objects.texi> | |
89 | @end example | |
90 | ||
8b480acb RS |
91 | @noindent |
92 | Hash notation cannot be read at all, so the Lisp reader signals the | |
93 | error @code{invalid-read-syntax} whenever it encounters @samp{#<}. | |
94 | @kindex invalid-read-syntax | |
95 | ||
96 | In other languages, an expression is text; it has no other form. In | |
97 | Lisp, an expression is primarily a Lisp object and only secondarily the | |
98 | text that is the object's read syntax. Often there is no need to | |
99 | emphasize this distinction, but you must keep it in the back of your | |
100 | mind, or you will occasionally be very confused. | |
101 | ||
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102 | When you evaluate an expression interactively, the Lisp interpreter |
103 | first reads the textual representation of it, producing a Lisp object, | |
104 | and then evaluates that object (@pxref{Evaluation}). However, | |
105 | evaluation and reading are separate activities. Reading returns the | |
106 | Lisp object represented by the text that is read; the object may or may | |
107 | not be evaluated later. @xref{Input Functions}, for a description of | |
108 | @code{read}, the basic function for reading objects. | |
109 | ||
110 | @node Comments | |
111 | @comment node-name, next, previous, up | |
112 | @section Comments | |
113 | @cindex comments | |
114 | @cindex @samp{;} in comment | |
115 | ||
116 | A @dfn{comment} is text that is written in a program only for the sake | |
117 | of humans that read the program, and that has no effect on the meaning | |
118 | of the program. In Lisp, a semicolon (@samp{;}) starts a comment if it | |
119 | is not within a string or character constant. The comment continues to | |
120 | the end of line. The Lisp reader discards comments; they do not become | |
121 | part of the Lisp objects which represent the program within the Lisp | |
122 | system. | |
123 | ||
bfe721d1 KH |
124 | The @samp{#@@@var{count}} construct, which skips the next @var{count} |
125 | characters, is useful for program-generated comments containing binary | |
126 | data. The Emacs Lisp byte compiler uses this in its output files | |
127 | (@pxref{Byte Compilation}). It isn't meant for source files, however. | |
128 | ||
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129 | @xref{Comment Tips}, for conventions for formatting comments. |
130 | ||
131 | @node Programming Types | |
132 | @section Programming Types | |
133 | @cindex programming types | |
134 | ||
135 | There are two general categories of types in Emacs Lisp: those having | |
136 | to do with Lisp programming, and those having to do with editing. The | |
137 | former exist in many Lisp implementations, in one form or another. The | |
138 | latter are unique to Emacs Lisp. | |
139 | ||
140 | @menu | |
141 | * Integer Type:: Numbers without fractional parts. | |
142 | * Floating Point Type:: Numbers with fractional parts and with a large range. | |
143 | * Character Type:: The representation of letters, numbers and | |
144 | control characters. | |
3e099569 RS |
145 | * Symbol Type:: A multi-use object that refers to a function, |
146 | variable, or property list, and has a unique identity. | |
5b359918 | 147 | * Sequence Type:: Both lists and arrays are classified as sequences. |
2b3fc6c3 | 148 | * Cons Cell Type:: Cons cells, and lists (which are made from cons cells). |
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149 | * Array Type:: Arrays include strings and vectors. |
150 | * String Type:: An (efficient) array of characters. | |
151 | * Vector Type:: One-dimensional arrays. | |
f9f59935 RS |
152 | * Char-Table Type:: One-dimensional sparse arrays indexed by characters. |
153 | * Bool-Vector Type:: One-dimensional arrays of @code{t} or @code{nil}. | |
8241495d | 154 | * Hash Table Type:: Super-fast lookup tables. |
3e099569 RS |
155 | * Function Type:: A piece of executable code you can call from elsewhere. |
156 | * Macro Type:: A method of expanding an expression into another | |
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157 | expression, more fundamental but less pretty. |
158 | * Primitive Function Type:: A function written in C, callable from Lisp. | |
159 | * Byte-Code Type:: A function written in Lisp, then compiled. | |
160 | * Autoload Type:: A type used for automatically loading seldom-used | |
161 | functions. | |
162 | @end menu | |
163 | ||
164 | @node Integer Type | |
165 | @subsection Integer Type | |
166 | ||
d5e7aa50 LT |
167 | The range of values for integers in Emacs Lisp is @minus{}268435456 to |
168 | 268435455 (29 bits; i.e., | |
37680279 | 169 | @ifnottex |
d5e7aa50 | 170 | -2**28 |
37680279 | 171 | @end ifnottex |
5b359918 | 172 | @tex |
d5e7aa50 | 173 | @math{-2^{28}} |
5b359918 RS |
174 | @end tex |
175 | to | |
37680279 | 176 | @ifnottex |
d5e7aa50 | 177 | 2**28 - 1) |
37680279 | 178 | @end ifnottex |
5b359918 | 179 | @tex |
8241495d | 180 | @math{2^{28}-1}) |
5b359918 | 181 | @end tex |
0fddfa72 RS |
182 | on most machines. (Some machines may provide a wider range.) It is |
183 | important to note that the Emacs Lisp arithmetic functions do not check | |
d5e7aa50 | 184 | for overflow. Thus @code{(1+ 268435455)} is @minus{}268435456 on most |
0fddfa72 | 185 | machines. |
5b359918 | 186 | |
2b3fc6c3 | 187 | The read syntax for integers is a sequence of (base ten) digits with an |
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188 | optional sign at the beginning and an optional period at the end. The |
189 | printed representation produced by the Lisp interpreter never has a | |
190 | leading @samp{+} or a final @samp{.}. | |
191 | ||
192 | @example | |
193 | @group | |
194 | -1 ; @r{The integer -1.} | |
195 | 1 ; @r{The integer 1.} | |
8241495d | 196 | 1. ; @r{Also the integer 1.} |
5b359918 | 197 | +1 ; @r{Also the integer 1.} |
d5e7aa50 | 198 | 536870913 ; @r{Also the integer 1 on a 29-bit implementation.} |
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199 | @end group |
200 | @end example | |
201 | ||
202 | @xref{Numbers}, for more information. | |
203 | ||
204 | @node Floating Point Type | |
205 | @subsection Floating Point Type | |
206 | ||
1d284913 | 207 | Floating point numbers are the computer equivalent of scientific |
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208 | notation; you can think of a floating point number as a fraction |
209 | together with a power of ten. The precise number of significant | |
210 | figures and the range of possible exponents is machine-specific; Emacs | |
211 | uses the C data type @code{double} to store the value, and internally | |
212 | this records a power of 2 rather than a power of 10. | |
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213 | |
214 | The printed representation for floating point numbers requires either | |
215 | a decimal point (with at least one digit following), an exponent, or | |
216 | both. For example, @samp{1500.0}, @samp{15e2}, @samp{15.0e2}, | |
217 | @samp{1.5e3}, and @samp{.15e4} are five ways of writing a floating point | |
218 | number whose value is 1500. They are all equivalent. | |
219 | ||
220 | @xref{Numbers}, for more information. | |
221 | ||
222 | @node Character Type | |
223 | @subsection Character Type | |
ad800164 | 224 | @cindex @acronym{ASCII} character codes |
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225 | |
226 | A @dfn{character} in Emacs Lisp is nothing more than an integer. In | |
227 | other words, characters are represented by their character codes. For | |
228 | example, the character @kbd{A} is represented as the @w{integer 65}. | |
229 | ||
230 | Individual characters are not often used in programs. It is far more | |
231 | common to work with @emph{strings}, which are sequences composed of | |
232 | characters. @xref{String Type}. | |
233 | ||
d4241ae4 LT |
234 | Characters in strings, buffers, and files are currently limited to |
235 | the range of 0 to 524287---nineteen bits. But not all values in that | |
236 | range are valid character codes. Codes 0 through 127 are | |
237 | @acronym{ASCII} codes; the rest are non-@acronym{ASCII} | |
238 | (@pxref{Non-ASCII Characters}). Characters that represent keyboard | |
239 | input have a much wider range, to encode modifier keys such as | |
969fe9b5 | 240 | Control, Meta and Shift. |
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241 | |
242 | @cindex read syntax for characters | |
243 | @cindex printed representation for characters | |
244 | @cindex syntax for characters | |
b6954afd RS |
245 | @cindex @samp{?} in character constant |
246 | @cindex question mark in character constant | |
5b359918 RS |
247 | Since characters are really integers, the printed representation of a |
248 | character is a decimal number. This is also a possible read syntax for | |
249 | a character, but writing characters that way in Lisp programs is a very | |
250 | bad idea. You should @emph{always} use the special read syntax formats | |
251 | that Emacs Lisp provides for characters. These syntax formats start | |
252 | with a question mark. | |
253 | ||
254 | The usual read syntax for alphanumeric characters is a question mark | |
255 | followed by the character; thus, @samp{?A} for the character | |
256 | @kbd{A}, @samp{?B} for the character @kbd{B}, and @samp{?a} for the | |
177c0ea7 | 257 | character @kbd{a}. |
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258 | |
259 | For example: | |
260 | ||
261 | @example | |
262 | ?Q @result{} 81 ?q @result{} 113 | |
263 | @end example | |
264 | ||
265 | You can use the same syntax for punctuation characters, but it is | |
2b3fc6c3 | 266 | often a good idea to add a @samp{\} so that the Emacs commands for |
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267 | editing Lisp code don't get confused. For example, @samp{?\(} is the |
268 | way to write the open-paren character. If the character is @samp{\}, | |
269 | you @emph{must} use a second @samp{\} to quote it: @samp{?\\}. | |
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270 | |
271 | @cindex whitespace | |
272 | @cindex bell character | |
273 | @cindex @samp{\a} | |
274 | @cindex backspace | |
275 | @cindex @samp{\b} | |
276 | @cindex tab | |
277 | @cindex @samp{\t} | |
278 | @cindex vertical tab | |
279 | @cindex @samp{\v} | |
280 | @cindex formfeed | |
281 | @cindex @samp{\f} | |
282 | @cindex newline | |
283 | @cindex @samp{\n} | |
284 | @cindex return | |
285 | @cindex @samp{\r} | |
286 | @cindex escape | |
287 | @cindex @samp{\e} | |
136b7da9 KS |
288 | @cindex space |
289 | @cindex @samp{\s} | |
6efdb8e5 | 290 | You can express the characters control-g, backspace, tab, newline, |
136b7da9 | 291 | vertical tab, formfeed, space, return, del, and escape as @samp{?\a}, |
9eae55d2 | 292 | @samp{?\b}, @samp{?\t}, @samp{?\n}, @samp{?\v}, @samp{?\f}, |
6efdb8e5 | 293 | @samp{?\s}, @samp{?\r}, @samp{?\d}, and @samp{?\e}, respectively. |
1d49d5d9 RS |
294 | (@samp{?\s} followed by a dash has a different meaning---it applies |
295 | the ``super'' modifier to the following character.) Thus, | |
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296 | |
297 | @example | |
6efdb8e5 | 298 | ?\a @result{} 7 ; @r{control-g, @kbd{C-g}} |
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299 | ?\b @result{} 8 ; @r{backspace, @key{BS}, @kbd{C-h}} |
300 | ?\t @result{} 9 ; @r{tab, @key{TAB}, @kbd{C-i}} | |
969fe9b5 | 301 | ?\n @result{} 10 ; @r{newline, @kbd{C-j}} |
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302 | ?\v @result{} 11 ; @r{vertical tab, @kbd{C-k}} |
303 | ?\f @result{} 12 ; @r{formfeed character, @kbd{C-l}} | |
304 | ?\r @result{} 13 ; @r{carriage return, @key{RET}, @kbd{C-m}} | |
305 | ?\e @result{} 27 ; @r{escape character, @key{ESC}, @kbd{C-[}} | |
136b7da9 | 306 | ?\s @result{} 32 ; @r{space character, @key{SPC}} |
5b359918 | 307 | ?\\ @result{} 92 ; @r{backslash character, @kbd{\}} |
8241495d | 308 | ?\d @result{} 127 ; @r{delete character, @key{DEL}} |
5b359918 RS |
309 | @end example |
310 | ||
311 | @cindex escape sequence | |
312 | These sequences which start with backslash are also known as | |
6efdb8e5 RS |
313 | @dfn{escape sequences}, because backslash plays the role of an |
314 | ``escape character''; this terminology has nothing to do with the | |
1d49d5d9 | 315 | character @key{ESC}. @samp{\s} is meant for use in character |
6efdb8e5 | 316 | constants; in string constants, just write the space. |
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317 | |
318 | @cindex control characters | |
319 | Control characters may be represented using yet another read syntax. | |
320 | This consists of a question mark followed by a backslash, caret, and the | |
321 | corresponding non-control character, in either upper or lower case. For | |
322 | example, both @samp{?\^I} and @samp{?\^i} are valid read syntax for the | |
323 | character @kbd{C-i}, the character whose value is 9. | |
324 | ||
325 | Instead of the @samp{^}, you can use @samp{C-}; thus, @samp{?\C-i} is | |
326 | equivalent to @samp{?\^I} and to @samp{?\^i}: | |
327 | ||
328 | @example | |
329 | ?\^I @result{} 9 ?\C-I @result{} 9 | |
330 | @end example | |
331 | ||
f9f59935 | 332 | In strings and buffers, the only control characters allowed are those |
ad800164 | 333 | that exist in @acronym{ASCII}; but for keyboard input purposes, you can turn |
f9f59935 | 334 | any character into a control character with @samp{C-}. The character |
ad800164 | 335 | codes for these non-@acronym{ASCII} control characters include the |
969fe9b5 | 336 | @tex |
8241495d | 337 | @math{2^{26}} |
969fe9b5 | 338 | @end tex |
37680279 | 339 | @ifnottex |
bfe721d1 | 340 | 2**26 |
37680279 | 341 | @end ifnottex |
bfe721d1 | 342 | bit as well as the code for the corresponding non-control |
ad800164 | 343 | character. Ordinary terminals have no way of generating non-@acronym{ASCII} |
ebc6903b RS |
344 | control characters, but you can generate them straightforwardly using X |
345 | and other window systems. | |
5b359918 | 346 | |
bfe721d1 KH |
347 | For historical reasons, Emacs treats the @key{DEL} character as |
348 | the control equivalent of @kbd{?}: | |
5b359918 RS |
349 | |
350 | @example | |
351 | ?\^? @result{} 127 ?\C-? @result{} 127 | |
352 | @end example | |
353 | ||
bfe721d1 KH |
354 | @noindent |
355 | As a result, it is currently not possible to represent the character | |
969fe9b5 RS |
356 | @kbd{Control-?}, which is a meaningful input character under X, using |
357 | @samp{\C-}. It is not easy to change this, as various Lisp files refer | |
358 | to @key{DEL} in this way. | |
bfe721d1 | 359 | |
5b359918 RS |
360 | For representing control characters to be found in files or strings, |
361 | we recommend the @samp{^} syntax; for control characters in keyboard | |
969fe9b5 RS |
362 | input, we prefer the @samp{C-} syntax. Which one you use does not |
363 | affect the meaning of the program, but may guide the understanding of | |
364 | people who read it. | |
5b359918 RS |
365 | |
366 | @cindex meta characters | |
367 | A @dfn{meta character} is a character typed with the @key{META} | |
368 | modifier key. The integer that represents such a character has the | |
969fe9b5 | 369 | @tex |
8241495d | 370 | @math{2^{27}} |
969fe9b5 | 371 | @end tex |
37680279 | 372 | @ifnottex |
bfe721d1 | 373 | 2**27 |
37680279 | 374 | @end ifnottex |
d5e7aa50 LT |
375 | bit set. We use high bits for this and other modifiers to make |
376 | possible a wide range of basic character codes. | |
5b359918 | 377 | |
bfe721d1 | 378 | In a string, the |
969fe9b5 | 379 | @tex |
8241495d | 380 | @math{2^{7}} |
969fe9b5 | 381 | @end tex |
37680279 | 382 | @ifnottex |
bfe721d1 | 383 | 2**7 |
37680279 | 384 | @end ifnottex |
d4241ae4 LT |
385 | bit attached to an @acronym{ASCII} character indicates a meta |
386 | character; thus, the meta characters that can fit in a string have | |
387 | codes in the range from 128 to 255, and are the meta versions of the | |
388 | ordinary @acronym{ASCII} characters. (In Emacs versions 18 and older, | |
389 | this convention was used for characters outside of strings as well.) | |
5b359918 RS |
390 | |
391 | The read syntax for meta characters uses @samp{\M-}. For example, | |
392 | @samp{?\M-A} stands for @kbd{M-A}. You can use @samp{\M-} together with | |
2b3fc6c3 RS |
393 | octal character codes (see below), with @samp{\C-}, or with any other |
394 | syntax for a character. Thus, you can write @kbd{M-A} as @samp{?\M-A}, | |
395 | or as @samp{?\M-\101}. Likewise, you can write @kbd{C-M-b} as | |
396 | @samp{?\M-\C-b}, @samp{?\C-\M-b}, or @samp{?\M-\002}. | |
5b359918 | 397 | |
f9f59935 | 398 | The case of a graphic character is indicated by its character code; |
ad800164 EZ |
399 | for example, @acronym{ASCII} distinguishes between the characters @samp{a} |
400 | and @samp{A}. But @acronym{ASCII} has no way to represent whether a control | |
f9f59935 | 401 | character is upper case or lower case. Emacs uses the |
969fe9b5 | 402 | @tex |
8241495d | 403 | @math{2^{25}} |
969fe9b5 | 404 | @end tex |
37680279 | 405 | @ifnottex |
bfe721d1 | 406 | 2**25 |
37680279 | 407 | @end ifnottex |
969fe9b5 | 408 | bit to indicate that the shift key was used in typing a control |
bfe721d1 | 409 | character. This distinction is possible only when you use X terminals |
969fe9b5 | 410 | or other special terminals; ordinary terminals do not report the |
b6954afd | 411 | distinction to the computer in any way. The Lisp syntax for |
177c0ea7 | 412 | the shift bit is @samp{\S-}; thus, @samp{?\C-\S-o} or @samp{?\C-\S-O} |
b6954afd | 413 | represents the shifted-control-o character. |
5b359918 RS |
414 | |
415 | @cindex hyper characters | |
416 | @cindex super characters | |
417 | @cindex alt characters | |
30e75a87 LT |
418 | The X Window System defines three other |
419 | @anchor{modifier bits}modifier bits that can be set | |
5b359918 | 420 | in a character: @dfn{hyper}, @dfn{super} and @dfn{alt}. The syntaxes |
a9f0a989 RS |
421 | for these bits are @samp{\H-}, @samp{\s-} and @samp{\A-}. (Case is |
422 | significant in these prefixes.) Thus, @samp{?\H-\M-\A-x} represents | |
6efdb8e5 RS |
423 | @kbd{Alt-Hyper-Meta-x}. (Note that @samp{\s} with no following @samp{-} |
424 | represents the space character.) | |
969fe9b5 | 425 | @tex |
d4241ae4 LT |
426 | Numerically, the bit values are @math{2^{22}} for alt, @math{2^{23}} |
427 | for super and @math{2^{24}} for hyper. | |
969fe9b5 | 428 | @end tex |
37680279 | 429 | @ifnottex |
bfe721d1 KH |
430 | Numerically, the |
431 | bit values are 2**22 for alt, 2**23 for super and 2**24 for hyper. | |
37680279 | 432 | @end ifnottex |
5b359918 | 433 | |
a9ab79a8 EZ |
434 | @cindex unicode character escape |
435 | Emacs provides a syntax for specifying characters by their Unicode | |
436 | code points. @code{?\u@var{nnnn}} represents a character that maps to | |
437 | the Unicode code point @samp{U+@var{nnnn}}. There is a slightly | |
438 | different syntax for specifying characters with code points above | |
439 | @code{#xFFFF}; @code{\U00@var{nnnnnn}} represents the character whose | |
440 | Unicode code point is @samp{U+@var{nnnnnn}}, if such a character | |
4d7d826b EZ |
441 | is supported by Emacs. If the corresponding character is not |
442 | supported, Emacs signals an error. | |
a9ab79a8 | 443 | |
11bfb693 RS |
444 | This peculiar and inconvenient syntax was adopted for compatibility |
445 | with other programming languages. Unlike some other languages, Emacs | |
446 | Lisp supports this syntax in only character literals and strings. | |
a9ab79a8 | 447 | |
5b359918 RS |
448 | @cindex @samp{\} in character constant |
449 | @cindex backslash in character constant | |
450 | @cindex octal character code | |
f9f59935 RS |
451 | Finally, the most general read syntax for a character represents the |
452 | character code in either octal or hex. To use octal, write a question | |
453 | mark followed by a backslash and the octal character code (up to three | |
5b359918 RS |
454 | octal digits); thus, @samp{?\101} for the character @kbd{A}, |
455 | @samp{?\001} for the character @kbd{C-a}, and @code{?\002} for the | |
ad800164 | 456 | character @kbd{C-b}. Although this syntax can represent any @acronym{ASCII} |
5b359918 | 457 | character, it is preferred only when the precise octal value is more |
ad800164 | 458 | important than the @acronym{ASCII} representation. |
5b359918 RS |
459 | |
460 | @example | |
461 | @group | |
462 | ?\012 @result{} 10 ?\n @result{} 10 ?\C-j @result{} 10 | |
463 | ?\101 @result{} 65 ?A @result{} 65 | |
464 | @end group | |
465 | @end example | |
466 | ||
f9f59935 RS |
467 | To use hex, write a question mark followed by a backslash, @samp{x}, |
468 | and the hexadecimal character code. You can use any number of hex | |
469 | digits, so you can represent any character code in this way. | |
470 | Thus, @samp{?\x41} for the character @kbd{A}, @samp{?\x1} for the | |
c99554b1 | 471 | character @kbd{C-a}, and @code{?\x8e0} for the Latin-1 character |
f9f59935 | 472 | @iftex |
969fe9b5 | 473 | @samp{@`a}. |
f9f59935 | 474 | @end iftex |
37680279 | 475 | @ifnottex |
f9f59935 | 476 | @samp{a} with grave accent. |
37680279 | 477 | @end ifnottex |
f9f59935 | 478 | |
5b359918 RS |
479 | A backslash is allowed, and harmless, preceding any character without |
480 | a special escape meaning; thus, @samp{?\+} is equivalent to @samp{?+}. | |
481 | There is no reason to add a backslash before most characters. However, | |
482 | you should add a backslash before any of the characters | |
483 | @samp{()\|;'`"#.,} to avoid confusing the Emacs commands for editing | |
6efdb8e5 | 484 | Lisp code. You can also add a backslash before whitespace characters such as |
5b359918 | 485 | space, tab, newline and formfeed. However, it is cleaner to use one of |
136b7da9 KS |
486 | the easily readable escape sequences, such as @samp{\t} or @samp{\s}, |
487 | instead of an actual whitespace character such as a tab or a space. | |
6efdb8e5 RS |
488 | (If you do write backslash followed by a space, you should write |
489 | an extra space after the character constant to separate it from the | |
490 | following text.) | |
5b359918 | 491 | |
2b3fc6c3 RS |
492 | @node Symbol Type |
493 | @subsection Symbol Type | |
494 | ||
8b480acb RS |
495 | A @dfn{symbol} in GNU Emacs Lisp is an object with a name. The |
496 | symbol name serves as the printed representation of the symbol. In | |
497 | ordinary Lisp use, with one single obarray (@pxref{Creating Symbols}, | |
498 | a symbol's name is unique---no two symbols have the same name. | |
2b3fc6c3 RS |
499 | |
500 | A symbol can serve as a variable, as a function name, or to hold a | |
501 | property list. Or it may serve only to be distinct from all other Lisp | |
502 | objects, so that its presence in a data structure may be recognized | |
503 | reliably. In a given context, usually only one of these uses is | |
504 | intended. But you can use one symbol in all of these ways, | |
505 | independently. | |
506 | ||
a61b9217 GM |
507 | A symbol whose name starts with a colon (@samp{:}) is called a |
508 | @dfn{keyword symbol}. These symbols automatically act as constants, and | |
509 | are normally used only by comparing an unknown symbol with a few | |
510 | specific alternatives. | |
511 | ||
2b3fc6c3 RS |
512 | @cindex @samp{\} in symbols |
513 | @cindex backslash in symbols | |
514 | A symbol name can contain any characters whatever. Most symbol names | |
515 | are written with letters, digits, and the punctuation characters | |
516 | @samp{-+=*/}. Such names require no special punctuation; the characters | |
517 | of the name suffice as long as the name does not look like a number. | |
518 | (If it does, write a @samp{\} at the beginning of the name to force | |
a2bd77b8 | 519 | interpretation as a symbol.) The characters @samp{_~!@@$%^&:<>@{@}?} are |
2b3fc6c3 RS |
520 | less often used but also require no special punctuation. Any other |
521 | characters may be included in a symbol's name by escaping them with a | |
522 | backslash. In contrast to its use in strings, however, a backslash in | |
523 | the name of a symbol simply quotes the single character that follows the | |
524 | backslash. For example, in a string, @samp{\t} represents a tab | |
525 | character; in the name of a symbol, however, @samp{\t} merely quotes the | |
969fe9b5 | 526 | letter @samp{t}. To have a symbol with a tab character in its name, you |
2b3fc6c3 RS |
527 | must actually use a tab (preceded with a backslash). But it's rare to |
528 | do such a thing. | |
529 | ||
530 | @cindex CL note---case of letters | |
531 | @quotation | |
ec221d13 | 532 | @b{Common Lisp note:} In Common Lisp, lower case letters are always |
bfe721d1 KH |
533 | ``folded'' to upper case, unless they are explicitly escaped. In Emacs |
534 | Lisp, upper case and lower case letters are distinct. | |
2b3fc6c3 RS |
535 | @end quotation |
536 | ||
537 | Here are several examples of symbol names. Note that the @samp{+} in | |
538 | the fifth example is escaped to prevent it from being read as a number. | |
0ea91b51 | 539 | This is not necessary in the fourth example because the rest of the name |
2b3fc6c3 RS |
540 | makes it invalid as a number. |
541 | ||
542 | @example | |
543 | @group | |
544 | foo ; @r{A symbol named @samp{foo}.} | |
545 | FOO ; @r{A symbol named @samp{FOO}, different from @samp{foo}.} | |
546 | char-to-string ; @r{A symbol named @samp{char-to-string}.} | |
547 | @end group | |
548 | @group | |
549 | 1+ ; @r{A symbol named @samp{1+}} | |
550 | ; @r{(not @samp{+1}, which is an integer).} | |
551 | @end group | |
552 | @group | |
553 | \+1 ; @r{A symbol named @samp{+1}} | |
554 | ; @r{(not a very readable name).} | |
555 | @end group | |
556 | @group | |
557 | \(*\ 1\ 2\) ; @r{A symbol named @samp{(* 1 2)} (a worse name).} | |
558 | @c the @'s in this next line use up three characters, hence the | |
559 | @c apparent misalignment of the comment. | |
560 | +-*/_~!@@$%^&=:<>@{@} ; @r{A symbol named @samp{+-*/_~!@@$%^&=:<>@{@}}.} | |
561 | ; @r{These characters need not be escaped.} | |
562 | @end group | |
563 | @end example | |
564 | ||
adcac9f5 | 565 | @ifinfo |
756e1ca0 EZ |
566 | @c This uses ``colon'' instead of a literal `:' because Info cannot |
567 | @c cope with a `:' in a menu | |
568 | @cindex @samp{#@var{colon}} read syntax | |
adcac9f5 EZ |
569 | @end ifinfo |
570 | @ifnotinfo | |
571 | @cindex @samp{#:} read syntax | |
572 | @end ifnotinfo | |
8241495d RS |
573 | Normally the Lisp reader interns all symbols (@pxref{Creating |
574 | Symbols}). To prevent interning, you can write @samp{#:} before the | |
575 | name of the symbol. | |
576 | ||
5b359918 RS |
577 | @node Sequence Type |
578 | @subsection Sequence Types | |
579 | ||
580 | A @dfn{sequence} is a Lisp object that represents an ordered set of | |
581 | elements. There are two kinds of sequence in Emacs Lisp, lists and | |
582 | arrays. Thus, an object of type list or of type array is also | |
583 | considered a sequence. | |
584 | ||
969fe9b5 RS |
585 | Arrays are further subdivided into strings, vectors, char-tables and |
586 | bool-vectors. Vectors can hold elements of any type, but string | |
587 | elements must be characters, and bool-vector elements must be @code{t} | |
03231f93 RS |
588 | or @code{nil}. Char-tables are like vectors except that they are |
589 | indexed by any valid character code. The characters in a string can | |
590 | have text properties like characters in a buffer (@pxref{Text | |
591 | Properties}), but vectors do not support text properties, even when | |
592 | their elements happen to be characters. | |
969fe9b5 RS |
593 | |
594 | Lists, strings and the other array types are different, but they have | |
595 | important similarities. For example, all have a length @var{l}, and all | |
596 | have elements which can be indexed from zero to @var{l} minus one. | |
597 | Several functions, called sequence functions, accept any kind of | |
5b359918 RS |
598 | sequence. For example, the function @code{elt} can be used to extract |
599 | an element of a sequence, given its index. @xref{Sequences Arrays | |
600 | Vectors}. | |
601 | ||
969fe9b5 RS |
602 | It is generally impossible to read the same sequence twice, since |
603 | sequences are always created anew upon reading. If you read the read | |
604 | syntax for a sequence twice, you get two sequences with equal contents. | |
605 | There is one exception: the empty list @code{()} always stands for the | |
606 | same object, @code{nil}. | |
5b359918 | 607 | |
2b3fc6c3 RS |
608 | @node Cons Cell Type |
609 | @subsection Cons Cell and List Types | |
5b359918 RS |
610 | @cindex address field of register |
611 | @cindex decrement field of register | |
ebc6903b | 612 | @cindex pointers |
5b359918 | 613 | |
b6954afd RS |
614 | A @dfn{cons cell} is an object that consists of two slots, called the |
615 | @sc{car} slot and the @sc{cdr} slot. Each slot can @dfn{hold} or | |
8241495d | 616 | @dfn{refer to} any Lisp object. We also say that ``the @sc{car} of |
b6954afd RS |
617 | this cons cell is'' whatever object its @sc{car} slot currently holds, |
618 | and likewise for the @sc{cdr}. | |
619 | ||
620 | @quotation | |
621 | A note to C programmers: in Lisp, we do not distinguish between | |
622 | ``holding'' a value and ``pointing to'' the value, because pointers in | |
623 | Lisp are implicit. | |
624 | @end quotation | |
2b3fc6c3 RS |
625 | |
626 | A @dfn{list} is a series of cons cells, linked together so that the | |
ebc6903b | 627 | @sc{cdr} slot of each cons cell holds either the next cons cell or the |
8b480acb RS |
628 | empty list. The empty list is actually the symbol @code{nil}. |
629 | @xref{Lists}, for functions that work on lists. Because most cons | |
630 | cells are used as part of lists, the phrase @dfn{list structure} has | |
631 | come to refer to any structure made out of cons cells. | |
5b359918 RS |
632 | |
633 | @cindex atom | |
634 | Because cons cells are so central to Lisp, we also have a word for | |
827b7ee7 | 635 | ``an object which is not a cons cell.'' These objects are called |
5b359918 RS |
636 | @dfn{atoms}. |
637 | ||
638 | @cindex parenthesis | |
cf107ffb | 639 | @cindex @samp{(@dots{})} in lists |
5b359918 RS |
640 | The read syntax and printed representation for lists are identical, and |
641 | consist of a left parenthesis, an arbitrary number of elements, and a | |
8b480acb RS |
642 | right parenthesis. Here are examples of lists: |
643 | ||
644 | @example | |
645 | (A 2 "A") ; @r{A list of three elements.} | |
646 | () ; @r{A list of no elements (the empty list).} | |
647 | nil ; @r{A list of no elements (the empty list).} | |
648 | ("A ()") ; @r{A list of one element: the string @code{"A ()"}.} | |
649 | (A ()) ; @r{A list of two elements: @code{A} and the empty list.} | |
650 | (A nil) ; @r{Equivalent to the previous.} | |
651 | ((A B C)) ; @r{A list of one element} | |
652 | ; @r{(which is a list of three elements).} | |
653 | @end example | |
5b359918 RS |
654 | |
655 | Upon reading, each object inside the parentheses becomes an element | |
656 | of the list. That is, a cons cell is made for each element. The | |
b6954afd RS |
657 | @sc{car} slot of the cons cell holds the element, and its @sc{cdr} |
658 | slot refers to the next cons cell of the list, which holds the next | |
ebc6903b | 659 | element in the list. The @sc{cdr} slot of the last cons cell is set to |
b6954afd | 660 | hold @code{nil}. |
5b359918 | 661 | |
8b480acb RS |
662 | The names @sc{car} and @sc{cdr} derive from the history of Lisp. The |
663 | original Lisp implementation ran on an @w{IBM 704} computer which | |
664 | divided words into two parts, called the ``address'' part and the | |
665 | ``decrement''; @sc{car} was an instruction to extract the contents of | |
666 | the address part of a register, and @sc{cdr} an instruction to extract | |
667 | the contents of the decrement. By contrast, ``cons cells'' are named | |
668 | for the function @code{cons} that creates them, which in turn was named | |
669 | for its purpose, the construction of cells. | |
670 | ||
671 | @menu | |
672 | * Box Diagrams:: Drawing pictures of lists. | |
673 | * Dotted Pair Notation:: A general syntax for cons cells. | |
674 | * Association List Type:: A specially constructed list. | |
675 | @end menu | |
676 | ||
677 | @node Box Diagrams | |
678 | @subsubsection Drawing Lists as Box Diagrams | |
5b359918 RS |
679 | @cindex box diagrams, for lists |
680 | @cindex diagrams, boxed, for lists | |
8b480acb | 681 | |
5b359918 | 682 | A list can be illustrated by a diagram in which the cons cells are |
ebc6903b RS |
683 | shown as pairs of boxes, like dominoes. (The Lisp reader cannot read |
684 | such an illustration; unlike the textual notation, which can be | |
685 | understood by both humans and computers, the box illustrations can be | |
686 | understood only by humans.) This picture represents the three-element | |
687 | list @code{(rose violet buttercup)}: | |
5b359918 RS |
688 | |
689 | @example | |
690 | @group | |
969fe9b5 RS |
691 | --- --- --- --- --- --- |
692 | | | |--> | | |--> | | |--> nil | |
693 | --- --- --- --- --- --- | |
5b359918 RS |
694 | | | | |
695 | | | | | |
696 | --> rose --> violet --> buttercup | |
697 | @end group | |
698 | @end example | |
699 | ||
b6954afd RS |
700 | In this diagram, each box represents a slot that can hold or refer to |
701 | any Lisp object. Each pair of boxes represents a cons cell. Each arrow | |
702 | represents a reference to a Lisp object, either an atom or another cons | |
703 | cell. | |
5b359918 | 704 | |
ebc6903b | 705 | In this example, the first box, which holds the @sc{car} of the first |
b6954afd RS |
706 | cons cell, refers to or ``holds'' @code{rose} (a symbol). The second |
707 | box, holding the @sc{cdr} of the first cons cell, refers to the next | |
ebc6903b RS |
708 | pair of boxes, the second cons cell. The @sc{car} of the second cons |
709 | cell is @code{violet}, and its @sc{cdr} is the third cons cell. The | |
710 | @sc{cdr} of the third (and last) cons cell is @code{nil}. | |
5b359918 | 711 | |
ebc6903b | 712 | Here is another diagram of the same list, @code{(rose violet |
5b359918 RS |
713 | buttercup)}, sketched in a different manner: |
714 | ||
715 | @smallexample | |
716 | @group | |
717 | --------------- ---------------- ------------------- | |
718 | | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | |
719 | | rose | o-------->| violet | o-------->| buttercup | nil | | |
720 | | | | | | | | | | | |
721 | --------------- ---------------- ------------------- | |
722 | @end group | |
723 | @end smallexample | |
724 | ||
5b359918 RS |
725 | @cindex @code{nil} in lists |
726 | @cindex empty list | |
727 | A list with no elements in it is the @dfn{empty list}; it is identical | |
728 | to the symbol @code{nil}. In other words, @code{nil} is both a symbol | |
729 | and a list. | |
730 | ||
5b359918 RS |
731 | Here is the list @code{(A ())}, or equivalently @code{(A nil)}, |
732 | depicted with boxes and arrows: | |
733 | ||
734 | @example | |
735 | @group | |
969fe9b5 RS |
736 | --- --- --- --- |
737 | | | |--> | | |--> nil | |
738 | --- --- --- --- | |
5b359918 RS |
739 | | | |
740 | | | | |
741 | --> A --> nil | |
742 | @end group | |
743 | @end example | |
744 | ||
8b480acb RS |
745 | Here is a more complex illustration, showing the three-element list, |
746 | @code{((pine needles) oak maple)}, the first element of which is a | |
747 | two-element list: | |
748 | ||
749 | @example | |
750 | @group | |
751 | --- --- --- --- --- --- | |
752 | | | |--> | | |--> | | |--> nil | |
753 | --- --- --- --- --- --- | |
754 | | | | | |
755 | | | | | |
756 | | --> oak --> maple | |
757 | | | |
758 | | --- --- --- --- | |
759 | --> | | |--> | | |--> nil | |
760 | --- --- --- --- | |
761 | | | | |
762 | | | | |
763 | --> pine --> needles | |
764 | @end group | |
765 | @end example | |
766 | ||
cf107ffb | 767 | The same list represented in the second box notation looks like this: |
8b480acb RS |
768 | |
769 | @example | |
770 | @group | |
771 | -------------- -------------- -------------- | |
772 | | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | |
773 | | o | o------->| oak | o------->| maple | nil | | |
774 | | | | | | | | | | | | |
775 | -- | --------- -------------- -------------- | |
776 | | | |
777 | | | |
778 | | -------------- ---------------- | |
779 | | | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | |
780 | ------>| pine | o------->| needles | nil | | |
781 | | | | | | | | |
782 | -------------- ---------------- | |
783 | @end group | |
784 | @end example | |
5b359918 RS |
785 | |
786 | @node Dotted Pair Notation | |
5b359918 RS |
787 | @subsubsection Dotted Pair Notation |
788 | @cindex dotted pair notation | |
789 | @cindex @samp{.} in lists | |
790 | ||
8b480acb RS |
791 | @dfn{Dotted pair notation} is a general syntax for cons cells that |
792 | represents the @sc{car} and @sc{cdr} explicitly. In this syntax, | |
5b359918 | 793 | @code{(@var{a} .@: @var{b})} stands for a cons cell whose @sc{car} is |
cf107ffb | 794 | the object @var{a} and whose @sc{cdr} is the object @var{b}. Dotted |
8b480acb RS |
795 | pair notation is more general than list syntax because the @sc{cdr} |
796 | does not have to be a list. However, it is more cumbersome in cases | |
797 | where list syntax would work. In dotted pair notation, the list | |
798 | @samp{(1 2 3)} is written as @samp{(1 . (2 . (3 . nil)))}. For | |
799 | @code{nil}-terminated lists, you can use either notation, but list | |
800 | notation is usually clearer and more convenient. When printing a | |
801 | list, the dotted pair notation is only used if the @sc{cdr} of a cons | |
802 | cell is not a list. | |
5b359918 | 803 | |
ebc6903b RS |
804 | Here's an example using boxes to illustrate dotted pair notation. |
805 | This example shows the pair @code{(rose . violet)}: | |
5b359918 RS |
806 | |
807 | @example | |
808 | @group | |
969fe9b5 RS |
809 | --- --- |
810 | | | |--> violet | |
811 | --- --- | |
5b359918 RS |
812 | | |
813 | | | |
814 | --> rose | |
815 | @end group | |
816 | @end example | |
817 | ||
ebc6903b RS |
818 | You can combine dotted pair notation with list notation to represent |
819 | conveniently a chain of cons cells with a non-@code{nil} final @sc{cdr}. | |
820 | You write a dot after the last element of the list, followed by the | |
821 | @sc{cdr} of the final cons cell. For example, @code{(rose violet | |
822 | . buttercup)} is equivalent to @code{(rose . (violet . buttercup))}. | |
823 | The object looks like this: | |
5b359918 RS |
824 | |
825 | @example | |
826 | @group | |
969fe9b5 RS |
827 | --- --- --- --- |
828 | | | |--> | | |--> buttercup | |
829 | --- --- --- --- | |
5b359918 RS |
830 | | | |
831 | | | | |
832 | --> rose --> violet | |
833 | @end group | |
834 | @end example | |
835 | ||
ebc6903b RS |
836 | The syntax @code{(rose .@: violet .@: buttercup)} is invalid because |
837 | there is nothing that it could mean. If anything, it would say to put | |
838 | @code{buttercup} in the @sc{cdr} of a cons cell whose @sc{cdr} is already | |
839 | used for @code{violet}. | |
5b359918 | 840 | |
ebc6903b | 841 | The list @code{(rose violet)} is equivalent to @code{(rose . (violet))}, |
5b359918 RS |
842 | and looks like this: |
843 | ||
844 | @example | |
845 | @group | |
969fe9b5 RS |
846 | --- --- --- --- |
847 | | | |--> | | |--> nil | |
848 | --- --- --- --- | |
5b359918 RS |
849 | | | |
850 | | | | |
851 | --> rose --> violet | |
852 | @end group | |
853 | @end example | |
854 | ||
855 | Similarly, the three-element list @code{(rose violet buttercup)} | |
856 | is equivalent to @code{(rose . (violet . (buttercup)))}. | |
37680279 | 857 | @ifnottex |
5b359918 RS |
858 | It looks like this: |
859 | ||
860 | @example | |
861 | @group | |
969fe9b5 RS |
862 | --- --- --- --- --- --- |
863 | | | |--> | | |--> | | |--> nil | |
864 | --- --- --- --- --- --- | |
5b359918 RS |
865 | | | | |
866 | | | | | |
867 | --> rose --> violet --> buttercup | |
868 | @end group | |
869 | @end example | |
37680279 | 870 | @end ifnottex |
5b359918 RS |
871 | |
872 | @node Association List Type | |
873 | @comment node-name, next, previous, up | |
874 | @subsubsection Association List Type | |
875 | ||
876 | An @dfn{association list} or @dfn{alist} is a specially-constructed | |
877 | list whose elements are cons cells. In each element, the @sc{car} is | |
878 | considered a @dfn{key}, and the @sc{cdr} is considered an | |
879 | @dfn{associated value}. (In some cases, the associated value is stored | |
880 | in the @sc{car} of the @sc{cdr}.) Association lists are often used as | |
881 | stacks, since it is easy to add or remove associations at the front of | |
882 | the list. | |
883 | ||
884 | For example, | |
885 | ||
886 | @example | |
887 | (setq alist-of-colors | |
92e732c4 | 888 | '((rose . red) (lily . white) (buttercup . yellow))) |
5b359918 RS |
889 | @end example |
890 | ||
891 | @noindent | |
892 | sets the variable @code{alist-of-colors} to an alist of three elements. In the | |
893 | first element, @code{rose} is the key and @code{red} is the value. | |
894 | ||
895 | @xref{Association Lists}, for a further explanation of alists and for | |
8241495d RS |
896 | functions that work on alists. @xref{Hash Tables}, for another kind of |
897 | lookup table, which is much faster for handling a large number of keys. | |
5b359918 RS |
898 | |
899 | @node Array Type | |
900 | @subsection Array Type | |
901 | ||
902 | An @dfn{array} is composed of an arbitrary number of slots for | |
b6954afd | 903 | holding or referring to other Lisp objects, arranged in a contiguous block of |
969fe9b5 RS |
904 | memory. Accessing any element of an array takes approximately the same |
905 | amount of time. In contrast, accessing an element of a list requires | |
906 | time proportional to the position of the element in the list. (Elements | |
907 | at the end of a list take longer to access than elements at the | |
908 | beginning of a list.) | |
909 | ||
910 | Emacs defines four types of array: strings, vectors, bool-vectors, and | |
911 | char-tables. | |
912 | ||
913 | A string is an array of characters and a vector is an array of | |
914 | arbitrary objects. A bool-vector can hold only @code{t} or @code{nil}. | |
915 | These kinds of array may have any length up to the largest integer. | |
916 | Char-tables are sparse arrays indexed by any valid character code; they | |
917 | can hold arbitrary objects. | |
918 | ||
919 | The first element of an array has index zero, the second element has | |
920 | index 1, and so on. This is called @dfn{zero-origin} indexing. For | |
921 | example, an array of four elements has indices 0, 1, 2, @w{and 3}. The | |
922 | largest possible index value is one less than the length of the array. | |
923 | Once an array is created, its length is fixed. | |
924 | ||
925 | All Emacs Lisp arrays are one-dimensional. (Most other programming | |
926 | languages support multidimensional arrays, but they are not essential; | |
8b480acb RS |
927 | you can get the same effect with nested one-dimensional arrays.) Each |
928 | type of array has its own read syntax; see the following sections for | |
929 | details. | |
969fe9b5 | 930 | |
cf107ffb RS |
931 | The array type is a subset of the sequence type, and contains the |
932 | string type, the vector type, the bool-vector type, and the char-table | |
933 | type. | |
5b359918 RS |
934 | |
935 | @node String Type | |
936 | @subsection String Type | |
937 | ||
938 | A @dfn{string} is an array of characters. Strings are used for many | |
939 | purposes in Emacs, as can be expected in a text editor; for example, as | |
940 | the names of Lisp symbols, as messages for the user, and to represent | |
941 | text extracted from buffers. Strings in Lisp are constants: evaluation | |
942 | of a string returns the same string. | |
943 | ||
f9f59935 RS |
944 | @xref{Strings and Characters}, for functions that operate on strings. |
945 | ||
946 | @menu | |
947 | * Syntax for Strings:: | |
948 | * Non-ASCII in Strings:: | |
949 | * Nonprinting Characters:: | |
950 | * Text Props and Strings:: | |
951 | @end menu | |
952 | ||
953 | @node Syntax for Strings | |
954 | @subsubsection Syntax for Strings | |
955 | ||
5b359918 RS |
956 | @cindex @samp{"} in strings |
957 | @cindex double-quote in strings | |
958 | @cindex @samp{\} in strings | |
959 | @cindex backslash in strings | |
960 | The read syntax for strings is a double-quote, an arbitrary number of | |
f9f59935 RS |
961 | characters, and another double-quote, @code{"like this"}. To include a |
962 | double-quote in a string, precede it with a backslash; thus, @code{"\""} | |
963 | is a string containing just a single double-quote character. Likewise, | |
964 | you can include a backslash by preceding it with another backslash, like | |
965 | this: @code{"this \\ is a single embedded backslash"}. | |
2b3fc6c3 | 966 | |
f9f59935 | 967 | @cindex newline in strings |
2b3fc6c3 RS |
968 | The newline character is not special in the read syntax for strings; |
969 | if you write a new line between the double-quotes, it becomes a | |
970 | character in the string. But an escaped newline---one that is preceded | |
971 | by @samp{\}---does not become part of the string; i.e., the Lisp reader | |
f9f59935 RS |
972 | ignores an escaped newline while reading a string. An escaped space |
973 | @w{@samp{\ }} is likewise ignored. | |
5b359918 RS |
974 | |
975 | @example | |
976 | "It is useful to include newlines | |
977 | in documentation strings, | |
978 | but the newline is \ | |
979 | ignored if escaped." | |
177c0ea7 JB |
980 | @result{} "It is useful to include newlines |
981 | in documentation strings, | |
5b359918 RS |
982 | but the newline is ignored if escaped." |
983 | @end example | |
984 | ||
f9f59935 | 985 | @node Non-ASCII in Strings |
ad800164 | 986 | @subsubsection Non-@acronym{ASCII} Characters in Strings |
f9f59935 | 987 | |
ad800164 | 988 | You can include a non-@acronym{ASCII} international character in a string |
f9f59935 | 989 | constant by writing it literally. There are two text representations |
ad800164 | 990 | for non-@acronym{ASCII} characters in Emacs strings (and in buffers): unibyte |
f9f59935 | 991 | and multibyte. If the string constant is read from a multibyte source, |
969fe9b5 RS |
992 | such as a multibyte buffer or string, or a file that would be visited as |
993 | multibyte, then the character is read as a multibyte character, and that | |
994 | makes the string multibyte. If the string constant is read from a | |
995 | unibyte source, then the character is read as unibyte and that makes the | |
996 | string unibyte. | |
f9f59935 | 997 | |
ad800164 | 998 | You can also represent a multibyte non-@acronym{ASCII} character with its |
8241495d | 999 | character code: use a hex escape, @samp{\x@var{nnnnnnn}}, with as many |
ad800164 | 1000 | digits as necessary. (Multibyte non-@acronym{ASCII} character codes are all |
f9f59935 | 1001 | greater than 256.) Any character which is not a valid hex digit |
b6954afd RS |
1002 | terminates this construct. If the next character in the string could be |
1003 | interpreted as a hex digit, write @w{@samp{\ }} (backslash and space) to | |
1004 | terminate the hex escape---for example, @w{@samp{\x8e0\ }} represents | |
1005 | one character, @samp{a} with grave accent. @w{@samp{\ }} in a string | |
1006 | constant is just like backslash-newline; it does not contribute any | |
1007 | character to the string, but it does terminate the preceding hex escape. | |
f9f59935 | 1008 | |
d4241ae4 LT |
1009 | You can represent a unibyte non-@acronym{ASCII} character with its |
1010 | character code, which must be in the range from 128 (0200 octal) to | |
1011 | 255 (0377 octal). If you write all such character codes in octal and | |
1012 | the string contains no other characters forcing it to be multibyte, | |
1013 | this produces a unibyte string. However, using any hex escape in a | |
1014 | string (even for an @acronym{ASCII} character) forces the string to be | |
1015 | multibyte. | |
177c0ea7 | 1016 | |
11bfb693 RS |
1017 | You can also specify characters in a string by their numeric values |
1018 | in Unicode, using @samp{\u} and @samp{\U} (@pxref{Character Type}). | |
1019 | ||
f9f59935 RS |
1020 | @xref{Text Representations}, for more information about the two |
1021 | text representations. | |
1022 | ||
1023 | @node Nonprinting Characters | |
1024 | @subsubsection Nonprinting Characters in Strings | |
1025 | ||
f9f59935 RS |
1026 | You can use the same backslash escape-sequences in a string constant |
1027 | as in character literals (but do not use the question mark that begins a | |
1028 | character constant). For example, you can write a string containing the | |
a9f0a989 RS |
1029 | nonprinting characters tab and @kbd{C-a}, with commas and spaces between |
1030 | them, like this: @code{"\t, \C-a"}. @xref{Character Type}, for a | |
1031 | description of the read syntax for characters. | |
1032 | ||
1033 | However, not all of the characters you can write with backslash | |
1034 | escape-sequences are valid in strings. The only control characters that | |
ad800164 EZ |
1035 | a string can hold are the @acronym{ASCII} control characters. Strings do not |
1036 | distinguish case in @acronym{ASCII} control characters. | |
a9f0a989 RS |
1037 | |
1038 | Properly speaking, strings cannot hold meta characters; but when a | |
1039 | string is to be used as a key sequence, there is a special convention | |
d4241ae4 LT |
1040 | that provides a way to represent meta versions of @acronym{ASCII} |
1041 | characters in a string. If you use the @samp{\M-} syntax to indicate | |
1042 | a meta character in a string constant, this sets the | |
969fe9b5 | 1043 | @tex |
8241495d | 1044 | @math{2^{7}} |
969fe9b5 | 1045 | @end tex |
37680279 | 1046 | @ifnottex |
f9f59935 | 1047 | 2**7 |
37680279 | 1048 | @end ifnottex |
a9f0a989 RS |
1049 | bit of the character in the string. If the string is used in |
1050 | @code{define-key} or @code{lookup-key}, this numeric code is translated | |
1051 | into the equivalent meta character. @xref{Character Type}. | |
1052 | ||
1053 | Strings cannot hold characters that have the hyper, super, or alt | |
1054 | modifiers. | |
f9f59935 RS |
1055 | |
1056 | @node Text Props and Strings | |
1057 | @subsubsection Text Properties in Strings | |
1058 | ||
1059 | A string can hold properties for the characters it contains, in | |
1060 | addition to the characters themselves. This enables programs that copy | |
1061 | text between strings and buffers to copy the text's properties with no | |
1062 | special effort. @xref{Text Properties}, for an explanation of what text | |
1063 | properties mean. Strings with text properties use a special read and | |
1064 | print syntax: | |
5b359918 RS |
1065 | |
1066 | @example | |
1067 | #("@var{characters}" @var{property-data}...) | |
1068 | @end example | |
1069 | ||
1070 | @noindent | |
1071 | where @var{property-data} consists of zero or more elements, in groups | |
1072 | of three as follows: | |
1073 | ||
1074 | @example | |
1075 | @var{beg} @var{end} @var{plist} | |
1076 | @end example | |
1077 | ||
1078 | @noindent | |
1079 | The elements @var{beg} and @var{end} are integers, and together specify | |
1080 | a range of indices in the string; @var{plist} is the property list for | |
f9f59935 | 1081 | that range. For example, |
5b359918 | 1082 | |
f9f59935 RS |
1083 | @example |
1084 | #("foo bar" 0 3 (face bold) 3 4 nil 4 7 (face italic)) | |
1085 | @end example | |
1086 | ||
1087 | @noindent | |
1088 | represents a string whose textual contents are @samp{foo bar}, in which | |
1089 | the first three characters have a @code{face} property with value | |
1090 | @code{bold}, and the last three have a @code{face} property with value | |
ebc6903b | 1091 | @code{italic}. (The fourth character has no text properties, so its |
a9f0a989 RS |
1092 | property list is @code{nil}. It is not actually necessary to mention |
1093 | ranges with @code{nil} as the property list, since any characters not | |
1094 | mentioned in any range will default to having no properties.) | |
5b359918 RS |
1095 | |
1096 | @node Vector Type | |
1097 | @subsection Vector Type | |
1098 | ||
1099 | A @dfn{vector} is a one-dimensional array of elements of any type. It | |
1100 | takes a constant amount of time to access any element of a vector. (In | |
1101 | a list, the access time of an element is proportional to the distance of | |
1102 | the element from the beginning of the list.) | |
1103 | ||
1104 | The printed representation of a vector consists of a left square | |
1105 | bracket, the elements, and a right square bracket. This is also the | |
1106 | read syntax. Like numbers and strings, vectors are considered constants | |
1107 | for evaluation. | |
1108 | ||
1109 | @example | |
1110 | [1 "two" (three)] ; @r{A vector of three elements.} | |
1111 | @result{} [1 "two" (three)] | |
1112 | @end example | |
1113 | ||
1114 | @xref{Vectors}, for functions that work with vectors. | |
1115 | ||
f9f59935 RS |
1116 | @node Char-Table Type |
1117 | @subsection Char-Table Type | |
1118 | ||
1119 | A @dfn{char-table} is a one-dimensional array of elements of any type, | |
1120 | indexed by character codes. Char-tables have certain extra features to | |
1121 | make them more useful for many jobs that involve assigning information | |
1122 | to character codes---for example, a char-table can have a parent to | |
1123 | inherit from, a default value, and a small number of extra slots to use for | |
1124 | special purposes. A char-table can also specify a single value for | |
1125 | a whole character set. | |
1126 | ||
1127 | The printed representation of a char-table is like a vector | |
969fe9b5 | 1128 | except that there is an extra @samp{#^} at the beginning. |
f9f59935 RS |
1129 | |
1130 | @xref{Char-Tables}, for special functions to operate on char-tables. | |
969fe9b5 RS |
1131 | Uses of char-tables include: |
1132 | ||
1133 | @itemize @bullet | |
1134 | @item | |
1135 | Case tables (@pxref{Case Tables}). | |
1136 | ||
1137 | @item | |
1138 | Character category tables (@pxref{Categories}). | |
1139 | ||
1140 | @item | |
3ae8380b | 1141 | Display tables (@pxref{Display Tables}). |
969fe9b5 RS |
1142 | |
1143 | @item | |
1144 | Syntax tables (@pxref{Syntax Tables}). | |
1145 | @end itemize | |
f9f59935 RS |
1146 | |
1147 | @node Bool-Vector Type | |
1148 | @subsection Bool-Vector Type | |
1149 | ||
1150 | A @dfn{bool-vector} is a one-dimensional array of elements that | |
1151 | must be @code{t} or @code{nil}. | |
1152 | ||
8241495d | 1153 | The printed representation of a bool-vector is like a string, except |
f9f59935 RS |
1154 | that it begins with @samp{#&} followed by the length. The string |
1155 | constant that follows actually specifies the contents of the bool-vector | |
1156 | as a bitmap---each ``character'' in the string contains 8 bits, which | |
1157 | specify the next 8 elements of the bool-vector (1 stands for @code{t}, | |
177c0ea7 | 1158 | and 0 for @code{nil}). The least significant bits of the character |
d4241ae4 | 1159 | correspond to the lowest indices in the bool-vector. |
f9f59935 RS |
1160 | |
1161 | @example | |
1162 | (make-bool-vector 3 t) | |
d4241ae4 | 1163 | @result{} #&3"^G" |
f9f59935 | 1164 | (make-bool-vector 3 nil) |
d4241ae4 LT |
1165 | @result{} #&3"^@@" |
1166 | @end example | |
1167 | ||
1168 | @noindent | |
1169 | These results make sense, because the binary code for @samp{C-g} is | |
1170 | 111 and @samp{C-@@} is the character with code 0. | |
1171 | ||
1172 | If the length is not a multiple of 8, the printed representation | |
1173 | shows extra elements, but these extras really make no difference. For | |
1174 | instance, in the next example, the two bool-vectors are equal, because | |
1175 | only the first 3 bits are used: | |
1176 | ||
1177 | @example | |
a9f0a989 | 1178 | (equal #&3"\377" #&3"\007") |
969fe9b5 | 1179 | @result{} t |
f9f59935 RS |
1180 | @end example |
1181 | ||
8241495d RS |
1182 | @node Hash Table Type |
1183 | @subsection Hash Table Type | |
1184 | ||
1185 | A hash table is a very fast kind of lookup table, somewhat like an | |
1186 | alist in that it maps keys to corresponding values, but much faster. | |
cf107ffb RS |
1187 | Hash tables have no read syntax, and print using hash notation. |
1188 | @xref{Hash Tables}, for functions that operate on hash tables. | |
8241495d RS |
1189 | |
1190 | @example | |
1191 | (make-hash-table) | |
1192 | @result{} #<hash-table 'eql nil 0/65 0x83af980> | |
1193 | @end example | |
1194 | ||
2b3fc6c3 RS |
1195 | @node Function Type |
1196 | @subsection Function Type | |
5b359918 RS |
1197 | |
1198 | Just as functions in other programming languages are executable, | |
1199 | @dfn{Lisp function} objects are pieces of executable code. However, | |
1200 | functions in Lisp are primarily Lisp objects, and only secondarily the | |
1201 | text which represents them. These Lisp objects are lambda expressions: | |
1202 | lists whose first element is the symbol @code{lambda} (@pxref{Lambda | |
1203 | Expressions}). | |
1204 | ||
1205 | In most programming languages, it is impossible to have a function | |
1206 | without a name. In Lisp, a function has no intrinsic name. A lambda | |
1207 | expression is also called an @dfn{anonymous function} (@pxref{Anonymous | |
1208 | Functions}). A named function in Lisp is actually a symbol with a valid | |
1209 | function in its function cell (@pxref{Defining Functions}). | |
1210 | ||
1211 | Most of the time, functions are called when their names are written in | |
1212 | Lisp expressions in Lisp programs. However, you can construct or obtain | |
1213 | a function object at run time and then call it with the primitive | |
1214 | functions @code{funcall} and @code{apply}. @xref{Calling Functions}. | |
1215 | ||
2b3fc6c3 RS |
1216 | @node Macro Type |
1217 | @subsection Macro Type | |
5b359918 RS |
1218 | |
1219 | A @dfn{Lisp macro} is a user-defined construct that extends the Lisp | |
1220 | language. It is represented as an object much like a function, but with | |
969fe9b5 | 1221 | different argument-passing semantics. A Lisp macro has the form of a |
5b359918 RS |
1222 | list whose first element is the symbol @code{macro} and whose @sc{cdr} |
1223 | is a Lisp function object, including the @code{lambda} symbol. | |
1224 | ||
1225 | Lisp macro objects are usually defined with the built-in | |
1226 | @code{defmacro} function, but any list that begins with @code{macro} is | |
1227 | a macro as far as Emacs is concerned. @xref{Macros}, for an explanation | |
1228 | of how to write a macro. | |
1229 | ||
f9f59935 RS |
1230 | @strong{Warning}: Lisp macros and keyboard macros (@pxref{Keyboard |
1231 | Macros}) are entirely different things. When we use the word ``macro'' | |
1232 | without qualification, we mean a Lisp macro, not a keyboard macro. | |
1233 | ||
5b359918 RS |
1234 | @node Primitive Function Type |
1235 | @subsection Primitive Function Type | |
1236 | @cindex special forms | |
1237 | ||
1238 | A @dfn{primitive function} is a function callable from Lisp but | |
1239 | written in the C programming language. Primitive functions are also | |
1240 | called @dfn{subrs} or @dfn{built-in functions}. (The word ``subr'' is | |
827b7ee7 | 1241 | derived from ``subroutine.'') Most primitive functions evaluate all |
5b359918 RS |
1242 | their arguments when they are called. A primitive function that does |
1243 | not evaluate all its arguments is called a @dfn{special form} | |
1244 | (@pxref{Special Forms}).@refill | |
1245 | ||
1246 | It does not matter to the caller of a function whether the function is | |
969fe9b5 RS |
1247 | primitive. However, this does matter if you try to redefine a primitive |
1248 | with a function written in Lisp. The reason is that the primitive | |
1249 | function may be called directly from C code. Calls to the redefined | |
1250 | function from Lisp will use the new definition, but calls from C code | |
1251 | may still use the built-in definition. Therefore, @strong{we discourage | |
1252 | redefinition of primitive functions}. | |
5b359918 RS |
1253 | |
1254 | The term @dfn{function} refers to all Emacs functions, whether written | |
2b3fc6c3 RS |
1255 | in Lisp or C. @xref{Function Type}, for information about the |
1256 | functions written in Lisp. | |
5b359918 RS |
1257 | |
1258 | Primitive functions have no read syntax and print in hash notation | |
1259 | with the name of the subroutine. | |
1260 | ||
1261 | @example | |
1262 | @group | |
1263 | (symbol-function 'car) ; @r{Access the function cell} | |
1264 | ; @r{of the symbol.} | |
1265 | @result{} #<subr car> | |
1266 | (subrp (symbol-function 'car)) ; @r{Is this a primitive function?} | |
1267 | @result{} t ; @r{Yes.} | |
1268 | @end group | |
1269 | @end example | |
1270 | ||
1271 | @node Byte-Code Type | |
1272 | @subsection Byte-Code Function Type | |
1273 | ||
1274 | The byte compiler produces @dfn{byte-code function objects}. | |
1275 | Internally, a byte-code function object is much like a vector; however, | |
1276 | the evaluator handles this data type specially when it appears as a | |
1277 | function to be called. @xref{Byte Compilation}, for information about | |
1278 | the byte compiler. | |
1279 | ||
bfe721d1 KH |
1280 | The printed representation and read syntax for a byte-code function |
1281 | object is like that for a vector, with an additional @samp{#} before the | |
1282 | opening @samp{[}. | |
5b359918 RS |
1283 | |
1284 | @node Autoload Type | |
1285 | @subsection Autoload Type | |
1286 | ||
1287 | An @dfn{autoload object} is a list whose first element is the symbol | |
8241495d RS |
1288 | @code{autoload}. It is stored as the function definition of a symbol, |
1289 | where it serves as a placeholder for the real definition. The autoload | |
1290 | object says that the real definition is found in a file of Lisp code | |
1291 | that should be loaded when necessary. It contains the name of the file, | |
1292 | plus some other information about the real definition. | |
5b359918 RS |
1293 | |
1294 | After the file has been loaded, the symbol should have a new function | |
1295 | definition that is not an autoload object. The new definition is then | |
1296 | called as if it had been there to begin with. From the user's point of | |
1297 | view, the function call works as expected, using the function definition | |
1298 | in the loaded file. | |
1299 | ||
1300 | An autoload object is usually created with the function | |
1301 | @code{autoload}, which stores the object in the function cell of a | |
1302 | symbol. @xref{Autoload}, for more details. | |
1303 | ||
1304 | @node Editing Types | |
1305 | @section Editing Types | |
1306 | @cindex editing types | |
1307 | ||
a9f0a989 | 1308 | The types in the previous section are used for general programming |
969fe9b5 RS |
1309 | purposes, and most of them are common to most Lisp dialects. Emacs Lisp |
1310 | provides several additional data types for purposes connected with | |
1311 | editing. | |
5b359918 RS |
1312 | |
1313 | @menu | |
1314 | * Buffer Type:: The basic object of editing. | |
1315 | * Marker Type:: A position in a buffer. | |
1316 | * Window Type:: Buffers are displayed in windows. | |
1317 | * Frame Type:: Windows subdivide frames. | |
1318 | * Window Configuration Type:: Recording the way a frame is subdivided. | |
969fe9b5 | 1319 | * Frame Configuration Type:: Recording the status of all frames. |
5b359918 RS |
1320 | * Process Type:: A process running on the underlying OS. |
1321 | * Stream Type:: Receive or send characters. | |
1322 | * Keymap Type:: What function a keystroke invokes. | |
5b359918 RS |
1323 | * Overlay Type:: How an overlay is represented. |
1324 | @end menu | |
1325 | ||
1326 | @node Buffer Type | |
1327 | @subsection Buffer Type | |
1328 | ||
1329 | A @dfn{buffer} is an object that holds text that can be edited | |
1330 | (@pxref{Buffers}). Most buffers hold the contents of a disk file | |
1331 | (@pxref{Files}) so they can be edited, but some are used for other | |
1332 | purposes. Most buffers are also meant to be seen by the user, and | |
1333 | therefore displayed, at some time, in a window (@pxref{Windows}). But a | |
1334 | buffer need not be displayed in any window. | |
1335 | ||
1336 | The contents of a buffer are much like a string, but buffers are not | |
1337 | used like strings in Emacs Lisp, and the available operations are | |
969fe9b5 | 1338 | different. For example, you can insert text efficiently into an |
8241495d RS |
1339 | existing buffer, altering the buffer's contents, whereas ``inserting'' |
1340 | text into a string requires concatenating substrings, and the result is | |
1341 | an entirely new string object. | |
5b359918 RS |
1342 | |
1343 | Each buffer has a designated position called @dfn{point} | |
1344 | (@pxref{Positions}). At any time, one buffer is the @dfn{current | |
1345 | buffer}. Most editing commands act on the contents of the current | |
2b3fc6c3 RS |
1346 | buffer in the neighborhood of point. Many of the standard Emacs |
1347 | functions manipulate or test the characters in the current buffer; a | |
1348 | whole chapter in this manual is devoted to describing these functions | |
1349 | (@pxref{Text}). | |
5b359918 RS |
1350 | |
1351 | Several other data structures are associated with each buffer: | |
1352 | ||
1353 | @itemize @bullet | |
1354 | @item | |
1355 | a local syntax table (@pxref{Syntax Tables}); | |
1356 | ||
1357 | @item | |
1358 | a local keymap (@pxref{Keymaps}); and, | |
1359 | ||
1360 | @item | |
969fe9b5 | 1361 | a list of buffer-local variable bindings (@pxref{Buffer-Local Variables}). |
bfe721d1 KH |
1362 | |
1363 | @item | |
969fe9b5 | 1364 | overlays (@pxref{Overlays}). |
bfe721d1 KH |
1365 | |
1366 | @item | |
1367 | text properties for the text in the buffer (@pxref{Text Properties}). | |
5b359918 RS |
1368 | @end itemize |
1369 | ||
1370 | @noindent | |
2b3fc6c3 | 1371 | The local keymap and variable list contain entries that individually |
5b359918 RS |
1372 | override global bindings or values. These are used to customize the |
1373 | behavior of programs in different buffers, without actually changing the | |
1374 | programs. | |
1375 | ||
bfe721d1 | 1376 | A buffer may be @dfn{indirect}, which means it shares the text |
969fe9b5 | 1377 | of another buffer, but presents it differently. @xref{Indirect Buffers}. |
bfe721d1 KH |
1378 | |
1379 | Buffers have no read syntax. They print in hash notation, showing the | |
5b359918 RS |
1380 | buffer name. |
1381 | ||
1382 | @example | |
1383 | @group | |
1384 | (current-buffer) | |
1385 | @result{} #<buffer objects.texi> | |
1386 | @end group | |
1387 | @end example | |
1388 | ||
1389 | @node Marker Type | |
1390 | @subsection Marker Type | |
1391 | ||
1392 | A @dfn{marker} denotes a position in a specific buffer. Markers | |
1393 | therefore have two components: one for the buffer, and one for the | |
1394 | position. Changes in the buffer's text automatically relocate the | |
1395 | position value as necessary to ensure that the marker always points | |
1396 | between the same two characters in the buffer. | |
1397 | ||
1398 | Markers have no read syntax. They print in hash notation, giving the | |
1399 | current character position and the name of the buffer. | |
1400 | ||
1401 | @example | |
1402 | @group | |
1403 | (point-marker) | |
1404 | @result{} #<marker at 10779 in objects.texi> | |
1405 | @end group | |
1406 | @end example | |
1407 | ||
1408 | @xref{Markers}, for information on how to test, create, copy, and move | |
1409 | markers. | |
1410 | ||
1411 | @node Window Type | |
1412 | @subsection Window Type | |
1413 | ||
1414 | A @dfn{window} describes the portion of the terminal screen that Emacs | |
1415 | uses to display a buffer. Every window has one associated buffer, whose | |
1416 | contents appear in the window. By contrast, a given buffer may appear | |
1417 | in one window, no window, or several windows. | |
1418 | ||
1419 | Though many windows may exist simultaneously, at any time one window | |
1420 | is designated the @dfn{selected window}. This is the window where the | |
1421 | cursor is (usually) displayed when Emacs is ready for a command. The | |
1422 | selected window usually displays the current buffer, but this is not | |
1423 | necessarily the case. | |
1424 | ||
1425 | Windows are grouped on the screen into frames; each window belongs to | |
1426 | one and only one frame. @xref{Frame Type}. | |
1427 | ||
1428 | Windows have no read syntax. They print in hash notation, giving the | |
1429 | window number and the name of the buffer being displayed. The window | |
1430 | numbers exist to identify windows uniquely, since the buffer displayed | |
1431 | in any given window can change frequently. | |
1432 | ||
1433 | @example | |
1434 | @group | |
1435 | (selected-window) | |
1436 | @result{} #<window 1 on objects.texi> | |
1437 | @end group | |
1438 | @end example | |
1439 | ||
1440 | @xref{Windows}, for a description of the functions that work on windows. | |
1441 | ||
1442 | @node Frame Type | |
1443 | @subsection Frame Type | |
1444 | ||
0c1cf122 RS |
1445 | A @dfn{frame} is a screen area that contains one or more Emacs |
1446 | windows; we also use the term ``frame'' to refer to the Lisp object | |
1447 | that Emacs uses to refer to the screen area. | |
5b359918 RS |
1448 | |
1449 | Frames have no read syntax. They print in hash notation, giving the | |
1450 | frame's title, plus its address in core (useful to identify the frame | |
1451 | uniquely). | |
1452 | ||
1453 | @example | |
1454 | @group | |
1455 | (selected-frame) | |
a9f0a989 | 1456 | @result{} #<frame emacs@@psilocin.gnu.org 0xdac80> |
5b359918 RS |
1457 | @end group |
1458 | @end example | |
1459 | ||
1460 | @xref{Frames}, for a description of the functions that work on frames. | |
1461 | ||
1462 | @node Window Configuration Type | |
1463 | @subsection Window Configuration Type | |
1464 | @cindex screen layout | |
1465 | ||
1466 | A @dfn{window configuration} stores information about the positions, | |
1467 | sizes, and contents of the windows in a frame, so you can recreate the | |
1468 | same arrangement of windows later. | |
1469 | ||
9e2b495b RS |
1470 | Window configurations do not have a read syntax; their print syntax |
1471 | looks like @samp{#<window-configuration>}. @xref{Window | |
1472 | Configurations}, for a description of several functions related to | |
1473 | window configurations. | |
5b359918 | 1474 | |
969fe9b5 RS |
1475 | @node Frame Configuration Type |
1476 | @subsection Frame Configuration Type | |
1477 | @cindex screen layout | |
1478 | ||
1479 | A @dfn{frame configuration} stores information about the positions, | |
1480 | sizes, and contents of the windows in all frames. It is actually | |
1481 | a list whose @sc{car} is @code{frame-configuration} and whose | |
1482 | @sc{cdr} is an alist. Each alist element describes one frame, | |
1483 | which appears as the @sc{car} of that element. | |
1484 | ||
1485 | @xref{Frame Configurations}, for a description of several functions | |
1486 | related to frame configurations. | |
1487 | ||
5b359918 RS |
1488 | @node Process Type |
1489 | @subsection Process Type | |
1490 | ||
1491 | The word @dfn{process} usually means a running program. Emacs itself | |
1492 | runs in a process of this sort. However, in Emacs Lisp, a process is a | |
1493 | Lisp object that designates a subprocess created by the Emacs process. | |
1494 | Programs such as shells, GDB, ftp, and compilers, running in | |
1495 | subprocesses of Emacs, extend the capabilities of Emacs. | |
1496 | ||
1497 | An Emacs subprocess takes textual input from Emacs and returns textual | |
1498 | output to Emacs for further manipulation. Emacs can also send signals | |
1499 | to the subprocess. | |
1500 | ||
1501 | Process objects have no read syntax. They print in hash notation, | |
1502 | giving the name of the process: | |
1503 | ||
1504 | @example | |
1505 | @group | |
1506 | (process-list) | |
1507 | @result{} (#<process shell>) | |
1508 | @end group | |
1509 | @end example | |
1510 | ||
1511 | @xref{Processes}, for information about functions that create, delete, | |
1512 | return information about, send input or signals to, and receive output | |
1513 | from processes. | |
1514 | ||
1515 | @node Stream Type | |
1516 | @subsection Stream Type | |
1517 | ||
1518 | A @dfn{stream} is an object that can be used as a source or sink for | |
1519 | characters---either to supply characters for input or to accept them as | |
1520 | output. Many different types can be used this way: markers, buffers, | |
1521 | strings, and functions. Most often, input streams (character sources) | |
1522 | obtain characters from the keyboard, a buffer, or a file, and output | |
1523 | streams (character sinks) send characters to a buffer, such as a | |
1524 | @file{*Help*} buffer, or to the echo area. | |
1525 | ||
1526 | The object @code{nil}, in addition to its other meanings, may be used | |
1527 | as a stream. It stands for the value of the variable | |
1528 | @code{standard-input} or @code{standard-output}. Also, the object | |
1529 | @code{t} as a stream specifies input using the minibuffer | |
1530 | (@pxref{Minibuffers}) or output in the echo area (@pxref{The Echo | |
1531 | Area}). | |
1532 | ||
1533 | Streams have no special printed representation or read syntax, and | |
1534 | print as whatever primitive type they are. | |
1535 | ||
3e099569 | 1536 | @xref{Read and Print}, for a description of functions |
2b3fc6c3 | 1537 | related to streams, including parsing and printing functions. |
5b359918 RS |
1538 | |
1539 | @node Keymap Type | |
1540 | @subsection Keymap Type | |
1541 | ||
1542 | A @dfn{keymap} maps keys typed by the user to commands. This mapping | |
1543 | controls how the user's command input is executed. A keymap is actually | |
1544 | a list whose @sc{car} is the symbol @code{keymap}. | |
1545 | ||
1546 | @xref{Keymaps}, for information about creating keymaps, handling prefix | |
1547 | keys, local as well as global keymaps, and changing key bindings. | |
1548 | ||
5b359918 RS |
1549 | @node Overlay Type |
1550 | @subsection Overlay Type | |
1551 | ||
f9f59935 RS |
1552 | An @dfn{overlay} specifies properties that apply to a part of a |
1553 | buffer. Each overlay applies to a specified range of the buffer, and | |
1554 | contains a property list (a list whose elements are alternating property | |
1555 | names and values). Overlay properties are used to present parts of the | |
1556 | buffer temporarily in a different display style. Overlays have no read | |
1557 | syntax, and print in hash notation, giving the buffer name and range of | |
1558 | positions. | |
5b359918 | 1559 | |
bfe721d1 KH |
1560 | @xref{Overlays}, for how to create and use overlays. |
1561 | ||
8241495d RS |
1562 | @node Circular Objects |
1563 | @section Read Syntax for Circular Objects | |
1564 | @cindex circular structure, read syntax | |
1565 | @cindex shared structure, read syntax | |
1566 | @cindex @samp{#@var{n}=} read syntax | |
1567 | @cindex @samp{#@var{n}#} read syntax | |
1568 | ||
4ccd1968 RS |
1569 | To represent shared or circular structures within a complex of Lisp |
1570 | objects, you can use the reader constructs @samp{#@var{n}=} and | |
1571 | @samp{#@var{n}#}. | |
8241495d RS |
1572 | |
1573 | Use @code{#@var{n}=} before an object to label it for later reference; | |
1574 | subsequently, you can use @code{#@var{n}#} to refer the same object in | |
1575 | another place. Here, @var{n} is some integer. For example, here is how | |
1576 | to make a list in which the first element recurs as the third element: | |
1577 | ||
1578 | @example | |
1579 | (#1=(a) b #1#) | |
1580 | @end example | |
1581 | ||
1582 | @noindent | |
1583 | This differs from ordinary syntax such as this | |
1584 | ||
1585 | @example | |
1586 | ((a) b (a)) | |
1587 | @end example | |
1588 | ||
1589 | @noindent | |
1590 | which would result in a list whose first and third elements | |
1591 | look alike but are not the same Lisp object. This shows the difference: | |
1592 | ||
1593 | @example | |
1594 | (prog1 nil | |
1595 | (setq x '(#1=(a) b #1#))) | |
1596 | (eq (nth 0 x) (nth 2 x)) | |
1597 | @result{} t | |
1598 | (setq x '((a) b (a))) | |
1599 | (eq (nth 0 x) (nth 2 x)) | |
1600 | @result{} nil | |
1601 | @end example | |
1602 | ||
1603 | You can also use the same syntax to make a circular structure, which | |
1604 | appears as an ``element'' within itself. Here is an example: | |
1605 | ||
1606 | @example | |
1607 | #1=(a #1#) | |
1608 | @end example | |
1609 | ||
1610 | @noindent | |
1611 | This makes a list whose second element is the list itself. | |
1612 | Here's how you can see that it really works: | |
1613 | ||
1614 | @example | |
1615 | (prog1 nil | |
1616 | (setq x '#1=(a #1#))) | |
1617 | (eq x (cadr x)) | |
1618 | @result{} t | |
1619 | @end example | |
1620 | ||
1621 | The Lisp printer can produce this syntax to record circular and shared | |
1622 | structure in a Lisp object, if you bind the variable @code{print-circle} | |
1623 | to a non-@code{nil} value. @xref{Output Variables}. | |
1624 | ||
5b359918 RS |
1625 | @node Type Predicates |
1626 | @section Type Predicates | |
5b359918 RS |
1627 | @cindex type checking |
1628 | @kindex wrong-type-argument | |
1629 | ||
1630 | The Emacs Lisp interpreter itself does not perform type checking on | |
1631 | the actual arguments passed to functions when they are called. It could | |
1632 | not do so, since function arguments in Lisp do not have declared data | |
1633 | types, as they do in other programming languages. It is therefore up to | |
1634 | the individual function to test whether each actual argument belongs to | |
1635 | a type that the function can use. | |
1636 | ||
1637 | All built-in functions do check the types of their actual arguments | |
1638 | when appropriate, and signal a @code{wrong-type-argument} error if an | |
1639 | argument is of the wrong type. For example, here is what happens if you | |
2b3fc6c3 | 1640 | pass an argument to @code{+} that it cannot handle: |
5b359918 RS |
1641 | |
1642 | @example | |
1643 | @group | |
1644 | (+ 2 'a) | |
f9f59935 | 1645 | @error{} Wrong type argument: number-or-marker-p, a |
5b359918 RS |
1646 | @end group |
1647 | @end example | |
1648 | ||
1649 | @cindex type predicates | |
1650 | @cindex testing types | |
22697dac KH |
1651 | If you want your program to handle different types differently, you |
1652 | must do explicit type checking. The most common way to check the type | |
1653 | of an object is to call a @dfn{type predicate} function. Emacs has a | |
1654 | type predicate for each type, as well as some predicates for | |
1655 | combinations of types. | |
5b359918 | 1656 | |
22697dac KH |
1657 | A type predicate function takes one argument; it returns @code{t} if |
1658 | the argument belongs to the appropriate type, and @code{nil} otherwise. | |
1659 | Following a general Lisp convention for predicate functions, most type | |
1660 | predicates' names end with @samp{p}. | |
1661 | ||
1662 | Here is an example which uses the predicates @code{listp} to check for | |
1663 | a list and @code{symbolp} to check for a symbol. | |
1664 | ||
1665 | @example | |
1666 | (defun add-on (x) | |
1667 | (cond ((symbolp x) | |
1668 | ;; If X is a symbol, put it on LIST. | |
1669 | (setq list (cons x list))) | |
1670 | ((listp x) | |
1671 | ;; If X is a list, add its elements to LIST. | |
1672 | (setq list (append x list))) | |
1673 | (t | |
969fe9b5 | 1674 | ;; We handle only symbols and lists. |
22697dac KH |
1675 | (error "Invalid argument %s in add-on" x)))) |
1676 | @end example | |
1677 | ||
1678 | Here is a table of predefined type predicates, in alphabetical order, | |
5b359918 RS |
1679 | with references to further information. |
1680 | ||
1681 | @table @code | |
1682 | @item atom | |
1683 | @xref{List-related Predicates, atom}. | |
1684 | ||
1685 | @item arrayp | |
1686 | @xref{Array Functions, arrayp}. | |
1687 | ||
969fe9b5 RS |
1688 | @item bool-vector-p |
1689 | @xref{Bool-Vectors, bool-vector-p}. | |
1690 | ||
5b359918 RS |
1691 | @item bufferp |
1692 | @xref{Buffer Basics, bufferp}. | |
1693 | ||
1694 | @item byte-code-function-p | |
1695 | @xref{Byte-Code Type, byte-code-function-p}. | |
1696 | ||
1697 | @item case-table-p | |
969fe9b5 | 1698 | @xref{Case Tables, case-table-p}. |
5b359918 RS |
1699 | |
1700 | @item char-or-string-p | |
1701 | @xref{Predicates for Strings, char-or-string-p}. | |
1702 | ||
969fe9b5 RS |
1703 | @item char-table-p |
1704 | @xref{Char-Tables, char-table-p}. | |
1705 | ||
5b359918 RS |
1706 | @item commandp |
1707 | @xref{Interactive Call, commandp}. | |
1708 | ||
1709 | @item consp | |
1710 | @xref{List-related Predicates, consp}. | |
1711 | ||
969fe9b5 RS |
1712 | @item display-table-p |
1713 | @xref{Display Tables, display-table-p}. | |
1714 | ||
5b359918 RS |
1715 | @item floatp |
1716 | @xref{Predicates on Numbers, floatp}. | |
1717 | ||
969fe9b5 RS |
1718 | @item frame-configuration-p |
1719 | @xref{Frame Configurations, frame-configuration-p}. | |
1720 | ||
5b359918 RS |
1721 | @item frame-live-p |
1722 | @xref{Deleting Frames, frame-live-p}. | |
1723 | ||
1724 | @item framep | |
1725 | @xref{Frames, framep}. | |
1726 | ||
f9f59935 RS |
1727 | @item functionp |
1728 | @xref{Functions, functionp}. | |
1729 | ||
8b480acb RS |
1730 | @item hash-table-p |
1731 | @xref{Other Hash, hash-table-p}. | |
1732 | ||
5b359918 RS |
1733 | @item integer-or-marker-p |
1734 | @xref{Predicates on Markers, integer-or-marker-p}. | |
1735 | ||
1736 | @item integerp | |
1737 | @xref{Predicates on Numbers, integerp}. | |
1738 | ||
1739 | @item keymapp | |
1740 | @xref{Creating Keymaps, keymapp}. | |
1741 | ||
e88399c8 DL |
1742 | @item keywordp |
1743 | @xref{Constant Variables}. | |
1744 | ||
5b359918 RS |
1745 | @item listp |
1746 | @xref{List-related Predicates, listp}. | |
1747 | ||
1748 | @item markerp | |
1749 | @xref{Predicates on Markers, markerp}. | |
1750 | ||
2b3fc6c3 RS |
1751 | @item wholenump |
1752 | @xref{Predicates on Numbers, wholenump}. | |
5b359918 RS |
1753 | |
1754 | @item nlistp | |
1755 | @xref{List-related Predicates, nlistp}. | |
1756 | ||
1757 | @item numberp | |
1758 | @xref{Predicates on Numbers, numberp}. | |
1759 | ||
1760 | @item number-or-marker-p | |
1761 | @xref{Predicates on Markers, number-or-marker-p}. | |
1762 | ||
1763 | @item overlayp | |
1764 | @xref{Overlays, overlayp}. | |
1765 | ||
1766 | @item processp | |
1767 | @xref{Processes, processp}. | |
1768 | ||
1769 | @item sequencep | |
1770 | @xref{Sequence Functions, sequencep}. | |
1771 | ||
1772 | @item stringp | |
1773 | @xref{Predicates for Strings, stringp}. | |
1774 | ||
1775 | @item subrp | |
1776 | @xref{Function Cells, subrp}. | |
1777 | ||
1778 | @item symbolp | |
1779 | @xref{Symbols, symbolp}. | |
1780 | ||
1781 | @item syntax-table-p | |
1782 | @xref{Syntax Tables, syntax-table-p}. | |
1783 | ||
1784 | @item user-variable-p | |
1785 | @xref{Defining Variables, user-variable-p}. | |
1786 | ||
1787 | @item vectorp | |
1788 | @xref{Vectors, vectorp}. | |
1789 | ||
1790 | @item window-configuration-p | |
1791 | @xref{Window Configurations, window-configuration-p}. | |
1792 | ||
1793 | @item window-live-p | |
1794 | @xref{Deleting Windows, window-live-p}. | |
1795 | ||
1796 | @item windowp | |
1797 | @xref{Basic Windows, windowp}. | |
27c5714a SM |
1798 | |
1799 | @item booleanp | |
23cac097 | 1800 | @xref{nil and t, booleanp}. |
27c5714a SM |
1801 | |
1802 | @item string-or-null-p | |
23cac097 | 1803 | @xref{Predicates for Strings, string-or-null-p}. |
5b359918 RS |
1804 | @end table |
1805 | ||
22697dac KH |
1806 | The most general way to check the type of an object is to call the |
1807 | function @code{type-of}. Recall that each object belongs to one and | |
1808 | only one primitive type; @code{type-of} tells you which one (@pxref{Lisp | |
1809 | Data Types}). But @code{type-of} knows nothing about non-primitive | |
1810 | types. In most cases, it is more convenient to use type predicates than | |
1811 | @code{type-of}. | |
1812 | ||
1813 | @defun type-of object | |
1814 | This function returns a symbol naming the primitive type of | |
9e2b495b RS |
1815 | @var{object}. The value is one of the symbols @code{symbol}, |
1816 | @code{integer}, @code{float}, @code{string}, @code{cons}, @code{vector}, | |
a61b9217 | 1817 | @code{char-table}, @code{bool-vector}, @code{hash-table}, @code{subr}, |
969fe9b5 RS |
1818 | @code{compiled-function}, @code{marker}, @code{overlay}, @code{window}, |
1819 | @code{buffer}, @code{frame}, @code{process}, or | |
9e2b495b | 1820 | @code{window-configuration}. |
22697dac KH |
1821 | |
1822 | @example | |
1823 | (type-of 1) | |
1824 | @result{} integer | |
ece35e15 | 1825 | @group |
22697dac KH |
1826 | (type-of 'nil) |
1827 | @result{} symbol | |
1828 | (type-of '()) ; @r{@code{()} is @code{nil}.} | |
1829 | @result{} symbol | |
1830 | (type-of '(x)) | |
1831 | @result{} cons | |
ece35e15 | 1832 | @end group |
22697dac KH |
1833 | @end example |
1834 | @end defun | |
1835 | ||
5b359918 RS |
1836 | @node Equality Predicates |
1837 | @section Equality Predicates | |
1838 | @cindex equality | |
1839 | ||
1840 | Here we describe two functions that test for equality between any two | |
1841 | objects. Other functions test equality between objects of specific | |
2b3fc6c3 RS |
1842 | types, e.g., strings. For these predicates, see the appropriate chapter |
1843 | describing the data type. | |
5b359918 RS |
1844 | |
1845 | @defun eq object1 object2 | |
1846 | This function returns @code{t} if @var{object1} and @var{object2} are | |
a044cd1f | 1847 | the same object, @code{nil} otherwise. |
5b359918 RS |
1848 | |
1849 | @code{eq} returns @code{t} if @var{object1} and @var{object2} are | |
1850 | integers with the same value. Also, since symbol names are normally | |
1851 | unique, if the arguments are symbols with the same name, they are | |
1852 | @code{eq}. For other types (e.g., lists, vectors, strings), two | |
1853 | arguments with the same contents or elements are not necessarily | |
1854 | @code{eq} to each other: they are @code{eq} only if they are the same | |
a044cd1f RS |
1855 | object, meaning that a change in the contents of one will be reflected |
1856 | by the same change in the contents of the other. | |
5b359918 | 1857 | |
5b359918 RS |
1858 | @example |
1859 | @group | |
1860 | (eq 'foo 'foo) | |
1861 | @result{} t | |
1862 | @end group | |
1863 | ||
1864 | @group | |
1865 | (eq 456 456) | |
1866 | @result{} t | |
1867 | @end group | |
1868 | ||
1869 | @group | |
1870 | (eq "asdf" "asdf") | |
1871 | @result{} nil | |
1872 | @end group | |
1873 | ||
1874 | @group | |
1875 | (eq '(1 (2 (3))) '(1 (2 (3)))) | |
1876 | @result{} nil | |
1877 | @end group | |
1878 | ||
1879 | @group | |
1880 | (setq foo '(1 (2 (3)))) | |
1881 | @result{} (1 (2 (3))) | |
1882 | (eq foo foo) | |
1883 | @result{} t | |
1884 | (eq foo '(1 (2 (3)))) | |
1885 | @result{} nil | |
1886 | @end group | |
1887 | ||
1888 | @group | |
1889 | (eq [(1 2) 3] [(1 2) 3]) | |
1890 | @result{} nil | |
1891 | @end group | |
1892 | ||
1893 | @group | |
1894 | (eq (point-marker) (point-marker)) | |
1895 | @result{} nil | |
1896 | @end group | |
1897 | @end example | |
1898 | ||
a9f0a989 RS |
1899 | The @code{make-symbol} function returns an uninterned symbol, distinct |
1900 | from the symbol that is used if you write the name in a Lisp expression. | |
1901 | Distinct symbols with the same name are not @code{eq}. @xref{Creating | |
1902 | Symbols}. | |
969fe9b5 RS |
1903 | |
1904 | @example | |
1905 | @group | |
1906 | (eq (make-symbol "foo") 'foo) | |
1907 | @result{} nil | |
1908 | @end group | |
1909 | @end example | |
5b359918 RS |
1910 | @end defun |
1911 | ||
1912 | @defun equal object1 object2 | |
1913 | This function returns @code{t} if @var{object1} and @var{object2} have | |
1914 | equal components, @code{nil} otherwise. Whereas @code{eq} tests if its | |
1915 | arguments are the same object, @code{equal} looks inside nonidentical | |
a61b9217 GM |
1916 | arguments to see if their elements or contents are the same. So, if two |
1917 | objects are @code{eq}, they are @code{equal}, but the converse is not | |
1918 | always true. | |
5b359918 RS |
1919 | |
1920 | @example | |
1921 | @group | |
1922 | (equal 'foo 'foo) | |
1923 | @result{} t | |
1924 | @end group | |
1925 | ||
1926 | @group | |
1927 | (equal 456 456) | |
1928 | @result{} t | |
1929 | @end group | |
1930 | ||
1931 | @group | |
1932 | (equal "asdf" "asdf") | |
1933 | @result{} t | |
1934 | @end group | |
1935 | @group | |
1936 | (eq "asdf" "asdf") | |
1937 | @result{} nil | |
1938 | @end group | |
1939 | ||
1940 | @group | |
1941 | (equal '(1 (2 (3))) '(1 (2 (3)))) | |
1942 | @result{} t | |
1943 | @end group | |
1944 | @group | |
1945 | (eq '(1 (2 (3))) '(1 (2 (3)))) | |
1946 | @result{} nil | |
1947 | @end group | |
1948 | ||
1949 | @group | |
1950 | (equal [(1 2) 3] [(1 2) 3]) | |
1951 | @result{} t | |
1952 | @end group | |
1953 | @group | |
1954 | (eq [(1 2) 3] [(1 2) 3]) | |
1955 | @result{} nil | |
1956 | @end group | |
1957 | ||
1958 | @group | |
1959 | (equal (point-marker) (point-marker)) | |
1960 | @result{} t | |
1961 | @end group | |
1962 | ||
1963 | @group | |
1964 | (eq (point-marker) (point-marker)) | |
1965 | @result{} nil | |
1966 | @end group | |
1967 | @end example | |
1968 | ||
cf107ffb | 1969 | @cindex equality of strings |
f9f59935 | 1970 | Comparison of strings is case-sensitive, but does not take account of |
d4241ae4 LT |
1971 | text properties---it compares only the characters in the strings. For |
1972 | technical reasons, a unibyte string and a multibyte string are | |
1973 | @code{equal} if and only if they contain the same sequence of | |
1974 | character codes and all these codes are either in the range 0 through | |
1975 | 127 (@acronym{ASCII}) or 160 through 255 (@code{eight-bit-graphic}). | |
1976 | (@pxref{Text Representations}). | |
5b359918 RS |
1977 | |
1978 | @example | |
1979 | @group | |
1980 | (equal "asdf" "ASDF") | |
1981 | @result{} nil | |
1982 | @end group | |
1983 | @end example | |
bfe721d1 | 1984 | |
a61b9217 GM |
1985 | However, two distinct buffers are never considered @code{equal}, even if |
1986 | their textual contents are the same. | |
5b359918 RS |
1987 | @end defun |
1988 | ||
a61b9217 GM |
1989 | The test for equality is implemented recursively; for example, given |
1990 | two cons cells @var{x} and @var{y}, @code{(equal @var{x} @var{y})} | |
1991 | returns @code{t} if and only if both the expressions below return | |
1992 | @code{t}: | |
1993 | ||
1994 | @example | |
1995 | (equal (car @var{x}) (car @var{y})) | |
1996 | (equal (cdr @var{x}) (cdr @var{y})) | |
1997 | @end example | |
1998 | ||
1999 | Because of this recursive method, circular lists may therefore cause | |
2000 | infinite recursion (leading to an error). | |
ab5796a9 MB |
2001 | |
2002 | @ignore | |
2003 | arch-tag: 9711a66e-4749-4265-9e8c-972d55b67096 | |
2004 | @end ignore |