@c -*-texinfo-*-
@c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual.
-@c Copyright (C) 1998 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
+@c Copyright (C) 1998, 1999 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
@c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions.
@setfilename ../info/characters
@node Non-ASCII Characters, Searching and Matching, Text, Top
-@chapter Non-ASCII Characters
+@chapter Non-@sc{ascii} Characters
@cindex multibyte characters
-@cindex non-ASCII characters
+@cindex non-@sc{ascii} characters
- This chapter covers the special issues relating to non-@sc{ASCII}
+ This chapter covers the special issues relating to non-@sc{ascii}
characters and how they are stored in strings and buffers.
@menu
-* Text Representations::
-* Converting Representations::
-* Selecting a Representation::
-* Character Codes::
-* Character Sets::
-* Chars and Bytes::
-* Splitting Characters::
-* Scanning Charsets::
-* Translation of Characters::
-* Coding Systems::
-* Input Methods::
+* Text Representations:: Unibyte and multibyte representations
+* Converting Representations:: Converting unibyte to multibyte and vice versa.
+* Selecting a Representation:: Treating a byte sequence as unibyte or multi.
+* Character Codes:: How unibyte and multibyte relate to
+ codes of individual characters.
+* Character Sets:: The space of possible characters codes
+ is divided into various character sets.
+* Chars and Bytes:: More information about multibyte encodings.
+* Splitting Characters:: Converting a character to its byte sequence.
+* Scanning Charsets:: Which character sets are used in a buffer?
+* Translation of Characters:: Translation tables are used for conversion.
+* Coding Systems:: Coding systems are conversions for saving files.
+* Input Methods:: Input methods allow users to enter various
+ non-ASCII characters without speciak keyboards.
+* Locales:: Interacting with the POSIX locale.
@end menu
@node Text Representations
@cindex unibyte text
In unibyte representation, each character occupies one byte and
therefore the possible character codes range from 0 to 255. Codes 0
-through 127 are @sc{ASCII} characters; the codes from 128 through 255
-are used for one non-@sc{ASCII} character set (you can choose which
+through 127 are @sc{ascii} characters; the codes from 128 through 255
+are used for one non-@sc{ascii} character set (you can choose which
character set by setting the variable @code{nonascii-insert-offset}).
@cindex leading code
character are always in the range 160 through 255 (octal 0240 through
0377); these values are @dfn{trailing codes}.
- Some sequences of bytes do not form meaningful multibyte characters:
-for example, a single isolated byte in the range 128 through 255 is
-never meaningful. Such byte sequences are not entirely valid, and never
-appear in proper multibyte text (since that consists of a sequence of
-@emph{characters}); but they can appear as part of ``raw bytes''
-(@pxref{Explicit Encoding}).
+ Some sequences of bytes are not valid in multibyte text: for example,
+a single isolated byte in the range 128 through 159 is not allowed. But
+character codes 128 through 159 can appear in multibyte text,
+represented as two-byte sequences. All the character codes 128 through
+255 are possible (though slightly abnormal) in multibyte text; they
+appear in multibyte buffers and strings when you do explicit encoding
+and decoding (@pxref{Explicit Encoding}).
In a buffer, the buffer-local value of the variable
@code{enable-multibyte-characters} specifies the representation used.
when the string is constructed.
@defvar enable-multibyte-characters
-@tindex enable-multibyte-characters
This variable specifies the current buffer's text representation.
If it is non-@code{nil}, the buffer contains multibyte text; otherwise,
it contains unibyte text.
@end defvar
@defvar default-enable-multibyte-characters
-@tindex default-enable-multibyte-characters
This variable's value is entirely equivalent to @code{(default-value
'enable-multibyte-characters)}, and setting this variable changes that
default value. Setting the local binding of
@end defun
@defun multibyte-string-p string
-@tindex multibyte-string-p
Return @code{t} if @var{string} is a multibyte string.
@end defun
acceptable because the buffer's representation is a choice made by the
user that cannot be overridden automatically.
- Converting unibyte text to multibyte text leaves @sc{ASCII} characters
-unchanged, and likewise 128 through 159. It converts the non-@sc{ASCII}
-codes 160 through 255 by adding the value @code{nonascii-insert-offset}
-to each character code. By setting this variable, you specify which
-character set the unibyte characters correspond to (@pxref{Character
-Sets}). For example, if @code{nonascii-insert-offset} is 2048, which is
-@code{(- (make-char 'latin-iso8859-1) 128)}, then the unibyte
-non-@sc{ASCII} characters correspond to Latin 1. If it is 2688, which
-is @code{(- (make-char 'greek-iso8859-7) 128)}, then they correspond to
-Greek letters.
-
- Converting multibyte text to unibyte is simpler: it performs
-logical-and of each character code with 255. If
-@code{nonascii-insert-offset} has a reasonable value, corresponding to
-the beginning of some character set, this conversion is the inverse of
-the other: converting unibyte text to multibyte and back to unibyte
-reproduces the original unibyte text.
+ Converting unibyte text to multibyte text leaves @sc{ascii} characters
+unchanged, and likewise character codes 128 through 159. It converts
+the non-@sc{ascii} codes 160 through 255 by adding the value
+@code{nonascii-insert-offset} to each character code. By setting this
+variable, you specify which character set the unibyte characters
+correspond to (@pxref{Character Sets}). For example, if
+@code{nonascii-insert-offset} is 2048, which is @code{(- (make-char
+'latin-iso8859-1) 128)}, then the unibyte non-@sc{ascii} characters
+correspond to Latin 1. If it is 2688, which is @code{(- (make-char
+'greek-iso8859-7) 128)}, then they correspond to Greek letters.
+
+ Converting multibyte text to unibyte is simpler: it discards all but
+the low 8 bits of each character code. If @code{nonascii-insert-offset}
+has a reasonable value, corresponding to the beginning of some character
+set, this conversion is the inverse of the other: converting unibyte
+text to multibyte and back to unibyte reproduces the original unibyte
+text.
@defvar nonascii-insert-offset
-@tindex nonascii-insert-offset
-This variable specifies the amount to add to a non-@sc{ASCII} character
+This variable specifies the amount to add to a non-@sc{ascii} character
when converting unibyte text to multibyte. It also applies when
@code{self-insert-command} inserts a character in the unibyte
-non-@sc{ASCII} range, 128 through 255. However, the function
-@code{insert-char} does not perform this conversion.
+non-@sc{ascii} range, 128 through 255. However, the functions
+@code{insert} and @code{insert-char} do not perform this conversion.
The right value to use to select character set @var{cs} is @code{(-
(make-char @var{cs}) 128)}. If the value of
@end defvar
@defvar nonascii-translation-table
-@tindex nonascii-translation-table
This variable provides a more general alternative to
@code{nonascii-insert-offset}. You can use it to specify independently
how to translate each code in the range of 128 through 255 into a
-multibyte character. The value should be a vector, or @code{nil}.
+multibyte character. The value should be a char-table, or @code{nil}.
If this is non-@code{nil}, it overrides @code{nonascii-insert-offset}.
@end defvar
@defun string-make-unibyte string
-@tindex string-make-unibyte
This function converts the text of @var{string} to unibyte
representation, if it isn't already, and returns the result. If
@var{string} is a unibyte string, it is returned unchanged.
+Multibyte character codes are converted to unibyte
+by using just the low 8 bits.
@end defun
@defun string-make-multibyte string
-@tindex string-make-multibyte
This function converts the text of @var{string} to multibyte
representation, if it isn't already, and returns the result. If
@var{string} is a multibyte string, it is returned unchanged.
+The function @code{unibyte-char-to-multibyte} is used to convert
+each unibyte character to a multibyte character.
@end defun
@node Selecting a Representation
multibyte when it was unibyte, or vice versa.
@defun set-buffer-multibyte multibyte
-@tindex set-buffer-multibyte
Set the representation type of the current buffer. If @var{multibyte}
is non-@code{nil}, the buffer becomes multibyte. If @var{multibyte}
is @code{nil}, the buffer becomes unibyte.
sequence of bytes. As a consequence, it can change the contents viewed
as characters; a sequence of two bytes which is treated as one character
in multibyte representation will count as two characters in unibyte
-representation.
+representation. Character codes 128 through 159 are an exception. They
+are represented by one byte in a unibyte buffer, but when the buffer is
+set to multibyte, they are converted to two-byte sequences, and vice
+versa.
This function sets @code{enable-multibyte-characters} to record which
representation is in use. It also adjusts various data in the buffer
@end defun
@defun string-as-unibyte string
-@tindex string-as-unibyte
This function returns a string with the same bytes as @var{string} but
treating each byte as a character. This means that the value may have
more characters than @var{string} has.
If @var{string} is already a unibyte string, then the value is
-@var{string} itself.
+@var{string} itself. Otherwise it is a newly created string, with no
+text properties. If @var{string} is multibyte, any characters it
+contains of charset @var{eight-bit-control} or @var{eight-bit-graphic}
+are converted to the corresponding single byte.
@end defun
@defun string-as-multibyte string
-@tindex string-as-multibyte
This function returns a string with the same bytes as @var{string} but
treating each multibyte sequence as one character. This means that the
value may have fewer characters than @var{string} has.
If @var{string} is already a multibyte string, then the value is
-@var{string} itself.
+@var{string} itself. Otherwise it is a newly created string, with no
+text properties. If @var{string} is unibyte and contains any individual
+8-bit bytes (i.e.@: not part of a multibyte form), they are converted to
+the corresponding multibyte character of charset @var{eight-bit-control}
+or @var{eight-bit-graphic}.
@end defun
@node Character Codes
codes. The valid character codes for unibyte representation range from
0 to 255---the values that can fit in one byte. The valid character
codes for multibyte representation range from 0 to 524287, but not all
-values in that range are valid. In particular, the values 128 through
-255 are not legitimate in multibyte text (though they can occur in ``raw
-bytes''; @pxref{Explicit Encoding}). Only the @sc{ASCII} codes 0
-through 127 are fully legitimate in both representations.
+values in that range are valid. The values 128 through 255 are not
+entirely proper in multibyte text, but they can occur if you do explicit
+encoding and decoding (@pxref{Explicit Encoding}). Some other character
+codes cannot occur at all in multibyte text. Only the @sc{ascii} codes
+0 through 127 are completely legitimate in both representations.
-@defun char-valid-p charcode
+@defun char-valid-p charcode &optional genericp
This returns @code{t} if @var{charcode} is valid for either one of the two
text representations.
(char-valid-p 2248)
@result{} t
@end example
+
+If the optional argument @var{genericp} is non-nil, this function
+returns @code{t} if @var{charcode} is a generic character
+(@pxref{Splitting Characters}).
@end defun
@node Character Sets
characters, generally known as Big 5, is divided into two Emacs
character sets, @code{chinese-big5-1} and @code{chinese-big5-2}.
+ @sc{ascii} characters are in character set @code{ascii}. The
+non-@sc{ascii} characters 128 through 159 are in character set
+@code{eight-bit-control}, and codes 160 through 255 are in character set
+@code{eight-bit-graphic}.
+
@defun charsetp object
-@tindex charsetp
-Return @code{t} if @var{object} is a character set name symbol,
+Returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a symbol that names a character set,
@code{nil} otherwise.
@end defun
@defun charset-list
-@tindex charset-list
This function returns a list of all defined character set names.
@end defun
@defun char-charset character
-@tindex char-charset
This function returns the name of the character set that @var{character}
belongs to.
@end defun
+@defun charset-plist charset
+@tindex charset-plist
+This function returns the charset property list of the character set
+@var{charset}. Although @var{charset} is a symbol, this is not the same
+as the property list of that symbol. Charset properties are used for
+special purposes within Emacs; for example,
+@code{preferred-coding-system} helps determine which coding system to
+use to encode characters in a charset.
+@end defun
+
@node Chars and Bytes
@section Characters and Bytes
@cindex bytes and characters
@cindex dimension (of character set)
In multibyte representation, each character occupies one or more
bytes. Each character set has an @dfn{introduction sequence}, which is
-normally one or two bytes long. (Exception: the @sc{ASCII} character
-set has a zero-length introduction sequence.) The introduction sequence
-is the beginning of the byte sequence for any character in the character
-set. The rest of the character's bytes distinguish it from the other
-characters in the same character set. Depending on the character set,
-there are either one or two distinguishing bytes; the number of such
-bytes is called the @dfn{dimension} of the character set.
+normally one or two bytes long. (Exception: the @sc{ascii} character
+set and the @sc{eight-bit-graphic} character set have a zero-length
+introduction sequence.) The introduction sequence is the beginning of
+the byte sequence for any character in the character set. The rest of
+the character's bytes distinguish it from the other characters in the
+same character set. Depending on the character set, there are either
+one or two distinguishing bytes; the number of such bytes is called the
+@dfn{dimension} of the character set.
@defun charset-dimension charset
-@tindex charset-dimension
This function returns the dimension of @var{charset}; at present, the
dimension is always 1 or 2.
@end defun
because Emacs translates automatically when necessary.
@defun split-char character
-@tindex split-char
Return a list containing the name of the character set of
@var{character}, followed by one or two byte values (integers) which
identify @var{character} within that character set. The number of byte
@result{} (latin-iso8859-1 72)
(split-char 65)
@result{} (ascii 65)
-@end example
-
-Unibyte non-@sc{ASCII} characters are considered as part of
-the @code{ascii} character set:
-
-@example
-(split-char 192)
- @result{} (ascii 192)
+(split-char 128)
+ @result{} (eight-bit-control 128)
@end example
@end defun
-@defun make-char charset &rest byte-values
-@tindex make-char
-This function returns the character in character set @var{charset}
-identified by @var{byte-values}. This is roughly the inverse of
-@code{split-char}. Normally, you should specify either one or two
-@var{byte-values}, according to the dimension of @var{charset}. For
-example,
+@defun make-char charset &optional code1 code2
+This function returns the character in character set @var{charset} whose
+position codes are @var{code1} and @var{code2}. This is roughly the
+inverse of @code{split-char}. Normally, you should specify either one
+or both of @var{code1} and @var{code2} according to the dimension of
+@var{charset}. For example,
@example
(make-char 'latin-iso8859-1 72)
@result{} 2176
(char-valid-p 2176)
@result{} nil
+(char-valid-p 2176 t)
+ @result{} t
(split-char 2176)
@result{} (latin-iso8859-1 0)
@end example
+The character sets @sc{ascii}, @sc{eight-bit-control}, and
+@sc{eight-bit-graphic} don't have corresponding generic characters. If
+@var{charset} is one of them and you don't supply @var{code1},
+@code{make-char} returns the character code corresponding to the
+smallest code in @var{charset}.
+
@node Scanning Charsets
@section Scanning for Character Sets
of the text in question.
@defun find-charset-region beg end &optional translation
-@tindex find-charset-region
This function returns a list of the character sets that appear in the
current buffer between positions @var{beg} and @var{end}.
is non-@code{nil}, then each character in the region is translated
through this table, and the value returned describes the translated
characters instead of the characters actually in the buffer.
-
-In two peculiar cases, the value includes the symbol @code{unknown}:
-
-@itemize @bullet
-@item
-When a unibyte buffer contains non-@sc{ASCII} characters.
-
-@item
-When a multibyte buffer contains invalid byte-sequences (raw bytes).
-@xref{Explicit Encoding}.
-@end itemize
@end defun
@defun find-charset-string string &optional translation
-@tindex find-charset-string
This function returns a list of the character sets that appear in the
string @var{string}. It is just like @code{find-charset-region}, except
that it applies to the contents of @var{string} instead of part of the
translation tables; there are also default translation tables which
apply to all other coding systems.
-@defun make-translation-table translations
-This function returns a translation table based on the arguments
-@var{translations}. Each argument---each element of
-@var{translations}---should be a list of the form @code{(@var{from}
-. @var{to})}; this says to translate the character @var{from} into
-@var{to}.
+@defun make-translation-table &rest translations
+This function returns a translation table based on the argument
+@var{translations}. Each element of @var{translations} should be a
+list of elements of the form @code{(@var{from} . @var{to})}; this says
+to translate the character @var{from} into @var{to}.
+
+The arguments and the forms in each argument are processed in order,
+and if a previous form already translates @var{to} to some other
+character, say @var{to-alt}, @var{from} is also translated to
+@var{to-alt}.
You can also map one whole character set into another character set with
the same dimension. To do this, you specify a generic character (which
character code conversion and end-of-line conversion as specified
by a particular @dfn{coding system}.
- How to define a coding system is an arcane matter, not yet documented.
+ How to define a coding system is an arcane matter, and is not
+documented here.
@menu
-* Coding System Basics::
-* Encoding and I/O::
-* Lisp and Coding Systems::
-* User-Chosen Coding Systems::
-* Default Coding Systems::
-* Specifying Coding Systems::
-* Explicit Encoding::
-* Terminal I/O Encoding::
-* MS-DOS File Types::
+* Coding System Basics:: Basic concepts.
+* Encoding and I/O:: How file I/O functions handle coding systems.
+* Lisp and Coding Systems:: Functions to operate on coding system names.
+* User-Chosen Coding Systems:: Asking the user to choose a coding system.
+* Default Coding Systems:: Controlling the default choices.
+* Specifying Coding Systems:: Requesting a particular coding system
+ for a single file operation.
+* Explicit Encoding:: Encoding or decoding text without doing I/O.
+* Terminal I/O Encoding:: Use of encoding for terminal I/O.
+* MS-DOS File Types:: How DOS "text" and "binary" files
+ relate to coding systems.
@end menu
@node Coding System Basics
(Russian) alphabet: ISO, Alternativnyj, and KOI8.
Most coding systems specify a particular character code for
-conversion, but some of them leave this unspecified---to be chosen
-heuristically based on the data.
+conversion, but some of them leave the choice unspecified---to be chosen
+heuristically for each file, based on the data.
@cindex end of line conversion
@dfn{End of line conversion} handles three different conventions used
on various systems for representing end of line in files. The Unix
convention is to use the linefeed character (also called newline). The
-DOS convention is to use the two character sequence, carriage-return
-linefeed, at the end of a line. The Mac convention is to use just
-carriage-return.
+DOS convention is to use a carriage-return and a linefeed at the end of
+a line. The Mac convention is to use just carriage-return.
@cindex base coding system
@cindex variant coding system
that the result is multibyte data.
@defun coding-system-get coding-system property
-@tindex coding-system-get
This function returns the specified property of the coding system
@var{coding-system}. Most coding system properties exist for internal
purposes, but one that you might find useful is @code{mime-charset}.
you will want to find out afterwards which coding system was chosen.
@defvar buffer-file-coding-system
-@tindex buffer-file-coding-system
This variable records the coding system that was used for visiting the
current buffer. It is used for saving the buffer, and for writing part
of the buffer with @code{write-region}. When those operations ask the
@end defvar
@defvar save-buffer-coding-system
-@tindex save-buffer-coding-system
-This variable specifies the coding system for saving the buffer---but it
-is not used for @code{write-region}. When saving the buffer asks the
-user to specify a different coding system, and
-@code{save-buffer-coding-system} was used, then it is updated to the
-coding system that was specified.
+This variable specifies the coding system for saving the buffer (by
+overriding @code{buffer-file-coding-system}). Note that it is not used
+for @code{write-region}.
+
+When a command to save the buffer starts out to use
+@code{buffer-file-coding-system} (or @code{save-buffer-coding-system}),
+and that coding system cannot handle
+the actual text in the buffer, the command asks the user to choose
+another coding system. After that happens, the command also updates
+@code{buffer-file-coding-system} to represent the coding system that the
+user specified.
@end defvar
@defvar last-coding-system-used
-@tindex last-coding-system-used
I/O operations for files and subprocesses set this variable to the
coding system name that was used. The explicit encoding and decoding
functions (@pxref{Explicit Encoding}) set it too.
@strong{Warning:} Since receiving subprocess output sets this variable,
-it can change whenever Emacs waits; therefore, you should use copy the
-value shortly after the function call which stores the value you are
+it can change whenever Emacs waits; therefore, you should copy the
+value shortly after the function call that stores the value you are
interested in.
@end defvar
@node Lisp and Coding Systems
@subsection Coding Systems in Lisp
- Here are Lisp facilities for working with coding systems;
+ Here are the Lisp facilities for working with coding systems:
@defun coding-system-list &optional base-only
-@tindex coding-system-list
This function returns a list of all coding system names (symbols). If
@var{base-only} is non-@code{nil}, the value includes only the
-base coding systems. Otherwise, it includes variant coding systems as well.
+base coding systems. Otherwise, it includes alias and variant coding
+systems as well.
@end defun
@defun coding-system-p object
-@tindex coding-system-p
This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a coding system
name.
@end defun
@defun check-coding-system coding-system
-@tindex check-coding-system
This function checks the validity of @var{coding-system}.
If that is valid, it returns @var{coding-system}.
Otherwise it signals an error with condition @code{coding-system-error}.
@end defun
@defun coding-system-change-eol-conversion coding-system eol-type
-@tindex coding-system-change-eol-conversion
This function returns a coding system which is like @var{coding-system}
except for its eol conversion, which is specified by @code{eol-type}.
@var{eol-type} should be @code{unix}, @code{dos}, @code{mac}, or
@end defun
@defun coding-system-change-text-conversion eol-coding text-coding
-@tindex coding-system-change-text-conversion
This function returns a coding system which uses the end-of-line
conversion of @var{eol-coding}, and the text conversion of
@var{text-coding}. If @var{text-coding} is @code{nil}, it returns
@end defun
@defun find-coding-systems-region from to
-@tindex find-coding-systems-region
This function returns a list of coding systems that could be used to
encode a text between @var{from} and @var{to}. All coding systems in
the list can safely encode any multibyte characters in that portion of
@end defun
@defun find-coding-systems-string string
-@tindex find-coding-systems-string
This function returns a list of coding systems that could be used to
encode the text of @var{string}. All coding systems in the list can
safely encode any multibyte characters in @var{string}. If the text
@end defun
@defun find-coding-systems-for-charsets charsets
-@tindex find-coding-systems-for-charsets
This function returns a list of coding systems that could be used to
encode all the character sets in the list @var{charsets}.
@end defun
@defun detect-coding-region start end &optional highest
-@tindex detect-coding-region
This function chooses a plausible coding system for decoding the text
-from @var{start} to @var{end}. This text should be ``raw bytes''
+from @var{start} to @var{end}. This text should be a byte sequence
(@pxref{Explicit Encoding}).
Normally this function returns a list of coding systems that could
return value is just one coding system, the one that is highest in
priority.
-If the region contains only @sc{ASCII} characters, the value
+If the region contains only @sc{ascii} characters, the value
is @code{undecided} or @code{(undecided)}.
@end defun
@defun detect-coding-string string highest
-@tindex detect-coding-string
This function is like @code{detect-coding-region} except that it
operates on the contents of @var{string} instead of bytes in the buffer.
@end defun
@node User-Chosen Coding Systems
@subsection User-Chosen Coding Systems
-@tindex select-safe-coding-system
-@defun select-safe-coding-system from to &optional preferred-coding-system
-This function selects a coding system for encoding the text between
-@var{from} and @var{to}, asking the user to choose if necessary.
-
-The optional argument @var{preferred-coding-system} specifies a coding
-system to try first. If that one can handle the text in the specified
-region, then it is used. If this argument is omitted, the current
-buffer's value of @code{buffer-file-coding-system} is tried first.
-
-If the region contains some multibyte characters that the preferred
-coding system cannot encode, this function asks the user to choose from
-a list of coding systems which can encode the text, and returns the
-user's choice.
-
-One other kludgy feature: if @var{from} is a string, the string is the
-target text, and @var{to} is ignored.
+@defun select-safe-coding-system from to &optional default-coding-system accept-default-p
+This function selects a coding system for encoding specified text,
+asking the user to choose if necessary. Normally the specified text
+is the text in the current buffer between @var{from} and @var{to},
+defaulting to the whole buffer if they are @code{nil}. If @var{from}
+is a string, the string is the specified text, and @var{to} is ignored.
+
+If @var{default-coding-system} is non-@code{nil}, that is the first
+coding system to try; if that can handle the text,
+@code{select-safe-coding-system} returns that coding system. It can
+also be a list of coding systems; then the function tries each of them
+one by one. After trying all of them, it next tries the user's most
+preferred coding system (@pxref{Recognize Coding,
+prefer-coding-system, the description of @code{prefer-coding-system},
+emacs, GNU Emacs Manual}), and after that the current buffer's value
+of @code{buffer-file-coding-system} (if it is not @code{undecided}).
+
+If one of those coding systems can safely encode all the specified
+text, @code{select-safe-coding-system} chooses it and returns it.
+Otherwise, it asks the user to choose from a list of coding systems
+which can encode all the text, and returns the user's choice.
+
+The optional argument @var{accept-default-p}, if non-@code{nil},
+should be a function to determine whether the coding system selected
+without user interaction is acceptable. If this function returns
+@code{nil}, the silently selected coding system is rejected, and the
+user is asked to select a coding system from a list of possible
+candidates.
+
+@vindex select-safe-coding-system-accept-default-p
+If the variable @code{select-safe-coding-system-accept-default-p} is
+non-@code{nil}, its value overrides the value of
+@var{accept-default-p}.
@end defun
Here are two functions you can use to let the user specify a coding
system, with completion. @xref{Completion}.
@defun read-coding-system prompt &optional default
-@tindex read-coding-system
This function reads a coding system using the minibuffer, prompting with
string @var{prompt}, and returns the coding system name as a symbol. If
the user enters null input, @var{default} specifies which coding system
@end defun
@defun read-non-nil-coding-system prompt
-@tindex read-non-nil-coding-system
This function reads a coding system using the minibuffer, prompting with
string @var{prompt}, and returns the coding system name as a symbol. If
the user tries to enter null input, it asks the user to try again.
@code{coding-system-for-read} and @code{coding-system-for-write}
(@pxref{Specifying Coding Systems}).
+@defvar auto-coding-regexp-alist
+This variable is an alist of text patterns and corresponding coding
+systems. Each element has the form @code{(@var{regexp}
+. @var{coding-system})}; a file whose first few kilobytes match
+@var{regexp} is decoded with @var{coding-system} when its contents are
+read into a buffer. The settings in this alist take priority over
+@code{coding:} tags in the files and the contents of
+@code{file-coding-system-alist} (see below). The default value is set
+so that Emacs automatically recognizes mail files in Babyl format and
+reads them with no code conversions.
+@end defvar
+
@defvar file-coding-system-alist
-@tindex file-coding-system-alist
This variable is an alist that specifies the coding systems to use for
reading and writing particular files. Each element has the form
@code{(@var{pattern} . @var{coding})}, where @var{pattern} is a regular
names that match @var{pattern}.
The @sc{cdr} of the element, @var{coding}, should be either a coding
-system, a cons cell containing two coding systems, or a function symbol.
-If @var{val} is a coding system, that coding system is used for both
-reading the file and writing it. If @var{val} is a cons cell containing
-two coding systems, its @sc{car} specifies the coding system for
-decoding, and its @sc{cdr} specifies the coding system for encoding.
-
-If @var{val} is a function symbol, the function must return a coding
+system, a cons cell containing two coding systems, or a function name (a
+symbol with a function definition). If @var{coding} is a coding system,
+that coding system is used for both reading the file and writing it. If
+@var{coding} is a cons cell containing two coding systems, its @sc{car}
+specifies the coding system for decoding, and its @sc{cdr} specifies the
+coding system for encoding.
+
+If @var{coding} is a function name, the function must return a coding
system or a cons cell containing two coding systems. This value is used
as described above.
@end defvar
@defvar process-coding-system-alist
-@tindex process-coding-system-alist
This variable is an alist specifying which coding systems to use for a
subprocess, depending on which program is running in the subprocess. It
works like @code{file-coding-system-alist}, except that @var{pattern} is
other coding systems later using @code{set-process-coding-system}.
@end defvar
- @strong{Warning:} Coding systems such as @code{undecided} which
-determine the coding system from the data do not work entirely reliably
+ @strong{Warning:} Coding systems such as @code{undecided}, which
+determine the coding system from the data, do not work entirely reliably
with asynchronous subprocess output. This is because Emacs handles
asynchronous subprocess output in batches, as it arrives. If the coding
system leaves the character code conversion unspecified, or leaves the
rather than @code{undecided} or @code{latin-1}.
@defvar network-coding-system-alist
-@tindex network-coding-system-alist
This variable is an alist that specifies the coding system to use for
network streams. It works much like @code{file-coding-system-alist},
with the difference that the @var{pattern} in an element may be either a
@end defvar
@defvar default-process-coding-system
-@tindex default-process-coding-system
This variable specifies the coding systems to use for subprocess (and
network stream) input and output, when nothing else specifies what to
do.
@end defvar
@defun find-operation-coding-system operation &rest arguments
-@tindex find-operation-coding-system
This function returns the coding system to use (by default) for
performing @var{operation} with @var{arguments}. The value has this
form:
@var{encoding-system} is the coding system for encoding (in case
@var{operation} does encoding).
-The argument @var{operation} should be an Emacs I/O primitive:
+The argument @var{operation} should be a symbol, one of
@code{insert-file-contents}, @code{write-region}, @code{call-process},
@code{call-process-region}, @code{start-process}, or
-@code{open-network-stream}.
+@code{open-network-stream}. These are the names of the Emacs I/O primitives
+that can do coding system conversion.
The remaining arguments should be the same arguments that might be given
-to that I/O primitive. Depending on which primitive, one of those
+to that I/O primitive. Depending on the primitive, one of those
arguments is selected as the @dfn{target}. For example, if
@var{operation} does file I/O, whichever argument specifies the file
name is the target. For subprocess primitives, the process name is the
@code{coding-system-for-write}.
@defvar coding-system-for-read
-@tindex coding-system-for-read
If this variable is non-@code{nil}, it specifies the coding system to
use for reading a file, or for input from a synchronous subprocess.
@end defvar
@defvar coding-system-for-write
-@tindex coding-system-for-write
This works much like @code{coding-system-for-read}, except that it
applies to output rather than input. It affects writing to files,
as well as sending output to subprocesses and net connections.
@end defvar
@defvar inhibit-eol-conversion
-@tindex inhibit-eol-conversion
When this variable is non-@code{nil}, no end-of-line conversion is done,
no matter which coding system is specified. This applies to all the
Emacs I/O and subprocess primitives, and to the explicit encoding and
You can also explicitly encode and decode text using the functions
in this section.
-@cindex raw bytes
The result of encoding, and the input to decoding, are not ordinary
-text. They are ``raw bytes''---bytes that represent text in the same
-way that an external file would. When a buffer contains raw bytes, it
-is most natural to mark that buffer as using unibyte representation,
-using @code{set-buffer-multibyte} (@pxref{Selecting a Representation}),
-but this is not required. If the buffer's contents are only temporarily
-raw, leave the buffer multibyte, which will be correct after you decode
-them.
-
- The usual way to get raw bytes in a buffer, for explicit decoding, is
-to read them from a file with @code{insert-file-contents-literally}
-(@pxref{Reading from Files}) or specify a non-@code{nil} @var{rawfile}
-argument when visiting a file with @code{find-file-noselect}.
-
- The usual way to use the raw bytes that result from explicitly
-encoding text is to copy them to a file or process---for example, to
-write them with @code{write-region} (@pxref{Writing to Files}), and
-suppress encoding for that @code{write-region} call by binding
-@code{coding-system-for-write} to @code{no-conversion}.
-
- Raw bytes typically contain stray individual bytes with values in the
-range 128 through 255, that are legitimate only as part of multibyte
-sequences. Even if the buffer is multibyte, Emacs treats each such
-individual byte as a character and uses the byte value as its character
-code. In this way, character codes 128 through 255 can be found in a
-multibyte buffer, even though they are not legitimate multibyte
-character codes.
-
- Raw bytes sometimes contain overlong byte-sequences that look like a
-proper multibyte character plus extra superfluous trailing codes. For
-most purposes, Emacs treats such a sequence in a buffer or string as a
-single character, and if you look at its character code, you get the
-value that corresponds to the multibyte character
-sequence---disregarding the extra trailing codes. This is not quite
-clean, but raw bytes are used only in limited ways, so as a practical
-matter it is not worth the trouble to treat this case differently.
-
- When a multibyte buffer contains illegitimate byte sequences,
-sometimes insertion or deletion can cause them to coalesce into a
-legitimate multibyte character. For example, suppose the buffer
-contains the sequence 129 68 192, 68 being the character @samp{D}. If
-you delete the @samp{D}, the bytes 129 and 192 become adjacent, and thus
-become one multibyte character (Latin-1 A with grave accent). Point
-moves to one side or the other of the character, since it cannot be
-within a character. Don't be alarmed by this.
-
- Some really peculiar situations prevent proper coalescence. For
-example, if you narrow the buffer so that the accessible portion begins
-just before the @samp{D}, then delete the @samp{D}, the two surrounding
-bytes cannot coalesce because one of them is outside the accessible
-portion of the buffer. In this case, the deletion cannot be done, so
-@code{delete-region} signals an error.
+text. They logically consist of a series of byte values; that is, a
+series of characters whose codes are in the range 0 through 255. In a
+multibyte buffer or string, character codes 128 through 159 are
+represented by multibyte sequences, but this is invisible to Lisp
+programs.
+
+ The usual way to read a file into a buffer as a sequence of bytes, so
+you can decode the contents explicitly, is with
+@code{insert-file-contents-literally} (@pxref{Reading from Files});
+alternatively, specify a non-@code{nil} @var{rawfile} argument when
+visiting a file with @code{find-file-noselect}. These methods result in
+a unibyte buffer.
+
+ The usual way to use the byte sequence that results from explicitly
+encoding text is to copy it to a file or process---for example, to write
+it with @code{write-region} (@pxref{Writing to Files}), and suppress
+encoding by binding @code{coding-system-for-write} to
+@code{no-conversion}.
Here are the functions to perform explicit encoding or decoding. The
-decoding functions produce ``raw bytes''; the encoding functions are
-meant to operate on ``raw bytes''. All of these functions discard text
-properties.
+decoding functions produce sequences of bytes; the encoding functions
+are meant to operate on sequences of bytes. All of these functions
+discard text properties.
@defun encode-coding-region start end coding-system
-@tindex encode-coding-region
This function encodes the text from @var{start} to @var{end} according
to coding system @var{coding-system}. The encoded text replaces the
-original text in the buffer. The result of encoding is ``raw bytes,''
-but the buffer remains multibyte if it was multibyte before.
+original text in the buffer. The result of encoding is logically a
+sequence of bytes, but the buffer remains multibyte if it was multibyte
+before.
@end defun
@defun encode-coding-string string coding-system
-@tindex encode-coding-string
This function encodes the text in @var{string} according to coding
system @var{coding-system}. It returns a new string containing the
-encoded text. The result of encoding is a unibyte string of ``raw bytes.''
+encoded text. The result of encoding is a unibyte string.
@end defun
@defun decode-coding-region start end coding-system
-@tindex decode-coding-region
This function decodes the text from @var{start} to @var{end} according
to coding system @var{coding-system}. The decoded text replaces the
original text in the buffer. To make explicit decoding useful, the text
-before decoding ought to be ``raw bytes.''
+before decoding ought to be a sequence of byte values, but both
+multibyte and unibyte buffers are acceptable.
@end defun
@defun decode-coding-string string coding-system
-@tindex decode-coding-string
This function decodes the text in @var{string} according to coding
system @var{coding-system}. It returns a new string containing the
decoded text. To make explicit decoding useful, the contents of
-@var{string} ought to be ``raw bytes.''
+@var{string} ought to be a sequence of byte values, but a multibyte
+string is acceptable.
@end defun
@node Terminal I/O Encoding
terminal.
@defun keyboard-coding-system
-@tindex keyboard-coding-system
This function returns the coding system that is in use for decoding
keyboard input---or @code{nil} if no coding system is to be used.
@end defun
@defun set-keyboard-coding-system coding-system
-@tindex set-keyboard-coding-system
This function specifies @var{coding-system} as the coding system to
use for decoding keyboard input. If @var{coding-system} is @code{nil},
that means do not decode keyboard input.
@end defun
@defun terminal-coding-system
-@tindex terminal-coding-system
This function returns the coding system that is in use for encoding
terminal output---or @code{nil} for no encoding.
@end defun
@defun set-terminal-coding-system coding-system
-@tindex set-terminal-coding-system
This function specifies @var{coding-system} as the coding system to use
for encoding terminal output. If @var{coding-system} is @code{nil},
that means do not encode terminal output.
@cindex text files and binary files
@cindex binary files and text files
- Emacs on MS-DOS and on MS-Windows recognizes certain file names as
-text files or binary files. By ``binary file'' we mean a file of
-literal byte values that are not necessary meant to be characters.
-Emacs does no end-of-line conversion and no character code conversion
-for a binary file. Meanwhile, when you create a new file which is
-marked by its name as a ``text file'', Emacs uses DOS end-of-line
-conversion.
+ On MS-DOS and Microsoft Windows, Emacs guesses the appropriate
+end-of-line conversion for a file by looking at the file's name. This
+feature classifies files as @dfn{text files} and @dfn{binary files}. By
+``binary file'' we mean a file of literal byte values that are not
+necessarily meant to be characters; Emacs does no end-of-line conversion
+and no character code conversion for them. On the other hand, the bytes
+in a text file are intended to represent characters; when you create a
+new file whose name implies that it is a text file, Emacs uses DOS
+end-of-line conversion.
@defvar buffer-file-type
This variable, automatically buffer-local in each buffer, records the
compute which. If it is a function, then it is called with a single
argument (the file name) and should return @code{t} or @code{nil}.
-Emacs when running on MS-DOS or MS-Windows checks this alist to decide
+When running on MS-DOS or MS-Windows, Emacs checks this alist to decide
which coding system to use when reading a file. For a text file,
@code{undecided-dos} is used. For a binary file, @code{no-conversion}
is used.
@section Input Methods
@cindex input methods
- @dfn{Input methods} provide convenient ways of entering non-@sc{ASCII}
+ @dfn{Input methods} provide convenient ways of entering non-@sc{ascii}
characters from the keyboard. Unlike coding systems, which translate
-non-@sc{ASCII} characters to and from encodings meant to be read by
+non-@sc{ascii} characters to and from encodings meant to be read by
programs, input methods provide human-friendly commands. (@xref{Input
Methods,,, emacs, The GNU Emacs Manual}, for information on how users
use input methods to enter text.) How to define input methods is not
Each input method has a name, which is currently a string;
in the future, symbols may also be usable as input method names.
-@tindex current-input-method
@defvar current-input-method
This variable holds the name of the input method now active in the
current buffer. (It automatically becomes local in each buffer when set
buffer now.
@end defvar
-@tindex default-input-method
@defvar default-input-method
This variable holds the default input method for commands that choose an
input method. Unlike @code{current-input-method}, this variable is
normally global.
@end defvar
-@tindex set-input-method
@defun set-input-method input-method
This function activates input method @var{input-method} for the current
buffer. It also sets @code{default-input-method} to @var{input-method}.
method for the current buffer.
@end defun
-@tindex read-input-method-name
@defun read-input-method-name prompt &optional default inhibit-null
This function reads an input method name with the minibuffer, prompting
with @var{prompt}. If @var{default} is non-@code{nil}, that is returned
The returned value is a string.
@end defun
-@tindex input-method-alist
@defvar input-method-alist
This variable defines all the supported input methods.
Each element defines one input method, and should have the form:
environment this input method is recommended for. (That serves only for
documentation purposes.)
-@var{title} is a string to display in the mode line while this method is
-active. @var{description} is a string describing this method and what
-it is good for.
-
@var{activate-func} is a function to call to activate this method. The
@var{args}, if any, are passed as arguments to @var{activate-func}. All
told, the arguments to @var{activate-func} are @var{input-method} and
the @var{args}.
+
+@var{title} is a string to display in the mode line while this method is
+active. @var{description} is a string describing this method and what
+it is good for.
@end defvar
The fundamental interface to input methods is through the
variable @code{input-method-function}. @xref{Reading One Event}.
+
+@node Locales
+@section Locales
+@cindex locale
+
+ POSIX defines a concept of ``locales'' which control which language
+to use in language-related features. These Emacs variables control
+how Emacs interacts with these features.
+
+@defvar locale-coding-system
+@tindex locale-coding-system
+This variable specifies the coding system to use for decoding system
+error messages, for encoding the format argument to
+@code{format-time-string}, and for decoding the return value of
+@code{format-time-string}.
+@end defvar
+
+@defvar system-messages-locale
+@tindex system-messages-locale
+This variable specifies the locale to use for generating system error
+messages. Changing the locale can cause messages to come out in a
+different language or in a different orthography. If the variable is
+@code{nil}, the locale is specified by environment variables in the
+usual POSIX fashion.
+@end defvar
+
+@defvar system-time-locale
+@tindex system-time-locale
+This variable specifies the locale to use for formatting time values.
+Changing the locale can cause messages to appear according to the
+conventions of a different language. If the variable is @code{nil}, the
+locale is specified by environment variables in the usual POSIX fashion.
+@end defvar
+
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