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1 | @c -*-texinfo-*- |
2 | @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual. | |
f9f59935 | 3 | @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1998 Free Software Foundation, Inc. |
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4 | @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions. |
5 | @setfilename ../info/functions | |
6 | @node Functions, Macros, Variables, Top | |
7 | @chapter Functions | |
8 | ||
9 | A Lisp program is composed mainly of Lisp functions. This chapter | |
10 | explains what functions are, how they accept arguments, and how to | |
11 | define them. | |
12 | ||
13 | @menu | |
14 | * What Is a Function:: Lisp functions vs. primitives; terminology. | |
15 | * Lambda Expressions:: How functions are expressed as Lisp objects. | |
16 | * Function Names:: A symbol can serve as the name of a function. | |
17 | * Defining Functions:: Lisp expressions for defining functions. | |
18 | * Calling Functions:: How to use an existing function. | |
19 | * Mapping Functions:: Applying a function to each element of a list, etc. | |
20 | * Anonymous Functions:: Lambda expressions are functions with no names. | |
21 | * Function Cells:: Accessing or setting the function definition | |
22 | of a symbol. | |
23 | * Inline Functions:: Defining functions that the compiler will open code. | |
24 | * Related Topics:: Cross-references to specific Lisp primitives | |
25 | that have a special bearing on how functions work. | |
26 | @end menu | |
27 | ||
28 | @node What Is a Function | |
29 | @section What Is a Function? | |
30 | ||
31 | In a general sense, a function is a rule for carrying on a computation | |
32 | given several values called @dfn{arguments}. The result of the | |
33 | computation is called the value of the function. The computation can | |
34 | also have side effects: lasting changes in the values of variables or | |
35 | the contents of data structures. | |
36 | ||
37 | Here are important terms for functions in Emacs Lisp and for other | |
38 | function-like objects. | |
39 | ||
40 | @table @dfn | |
41 | @item function | |
42 | @cindex function | |
43 | In Emacs Lisp, a @dfn{function} is anything that can be applied to | |
44 | arguments in a Lisp program. In some cases, we use it more | |
45 | specifically to mean a function written in Lisp. Special forms and | |
46 | macros are not functions. | |
47 | ||
48 | @item primitive | |
49 | @cindex primitive | |
50 | @cindex subr | |
51 | @cindex built-in function | |
52 | A @dfn{primitive} is a function callable from Lisp that is written in C, | |
53 | such as @code{car} or @code{append}. These functions are also called | |
54 | @dfn{built-in} functions or @dfn{subrs}. (Special forms are also | |
55 | considered primitives.) | |
56 | ||
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57 | Usually the reason we implement a function as a primitive is because it |
58 | is fundamental, because it provides a low-level interface to operating | |
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59 | system services, or because it needs to run fast. Primitives can be |
60 | modified or added only by changing the C sources and recompiling the | |
61 | editor. See @ref{Writing Emacs Primitives}. | |
62 | ||
63 | @item lambda expression | |
64 | A @dfn{lambda expression} is a function written in Lisp. | |
65 | These are described in the following section. | |
66 | @ifinfo | |
67 | @xref{Lambda Expressions}. | |
68 | @end ifinfo | |
69 | ||
70 | @item special form | |
71 | A @dfn{special form} is a primitive that is like a function but does not | |
72 | evaluate all of its arguments in the usual way. It may evaluate only | |
73 | some of the arguments, or may evaluate them in an unusual order, or | |
74 | several times. Many special forms are described in @ref{Control | |
75 | Structures}. | |
76 | ||
77 | @item macro | |
78 | @cindex macro | |
79 | A @dfn{macro} is a construct defined in Lisp by the programmer. It | |
80 | differs from a function in that it translates a Lisp expression that you | |
81 | write into an equivalent expression to be evaluated instead of the | |
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82 | original expression. Macros enable Lisp programmers to do the sorts of |
83 | things that special forms can do. @xref{Macros}, for how to define and | |
84 | use macros. | |
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85 | |
86 | @item command | |
87 | @cindex command | |
88 | A @dfn{command} is an object that @code{command-execute} can invoke; it | |
89 | is a possible definition for a key sequence. Some functions are | |
90 | commands; a function written in Lisp is a command if it contains an | |
91 | interactive declaration (@pxref{Defining Commands}). Such a function | |
92 | can be called from Lisp expressions like other functions; in this case, | |
93 | the fact that the function is a command makes no difference. | |
94 | ||
95 | Keyboard macros (strings and vectors) are commands also, even though | |
96 | they are not functions. A symbol is a command if its function | |
97 | definition is a command; such symbols can be invoked with @kbd{M-x}. | |
98 | The symbol is a function as well if the definition is a function. | |
99 | @xref{Command Overview}. | |
100 | ||
101 | @item keystroke command | |
102 | @cindex keystroke command | |
103 | A @dfn{keystroke command} is a command that is bound to a key sequence | |
104 | (typically one to three keystrokes). The distinction is made here | |
105 | merely to avoid confusion with the meaning of ``command'' in non-Emacs | |
106 | editors; for Lisp programs, the distinction is normally unimportant. | |
107 | ||
108 | @item byte-code function | |
109 | A @dfn{byte-code function} is a function that has been compiled by the | |
110 | byte compiler. @xref{Byte-Code Type}. | |
111 | @end table | |
112 | ||
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113 | @tindex functionp |
114 | @defun functionp object | |
115 | This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is any kind of function; | |
116 | that is, anything that could be called as a function. | |
117 | @end defun | |
118 | ||
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119 | @defun subrp object |
120 | This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a built-in function | |
121 | (i.e., a Lisp primitive). | |
122 | ||
123 | @example | |
124 | @group | |
125 | (subrp 'message) ; @r{@code{message} is a symbol,} | |
126 | @result{} nil ; @r{not a subr object.} | |
127 | @end group | |
128 | @group | |
129 | (subrp (symbol-function 'message)) | |
130 | @result{} t | |
131 | @end group | |
132 | @end example | |
133 | @end defun | |
134 | ||
135 | @defun byte-code-function-p object | |
136 | This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a byte-code | |
137 | function. For example: | |
138 | ||
139 | @example | |
140 | @group | |
141 | (byte-code-function-p (symbol-function 'next-line)) | |
142 | @result{} t | |
143 | @end group | |
144 | @end example | |
145 | @end defun | |
146 | ||
147 | @node Lambda Expressions | |
148 | @section Lambda Expressions | |
149 | @cindex lambda expression | |
150 | ||
151 | A function written in Lisp is a list that looks like this: | |
152 | ||
153 | @example | |
154 | (lambda (@var{arg-variables}@dots{}) | |
155 | @r{[}@var{documentation-string}@r{]} | |
156 | @r{[}@var{interactive-declaration}@r{]} | |
157 | @var{body-forms}@dots{}) | |
158 | @end example | |
159 | ||
160 | @noindent | |
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161 | Such a list is called a @dfn{lambda expression}. In Emacs Lisp, it |
162 | actually is valid as an expression---it evaluates to itself. In some | |
163 | other Lisp dialects, a lambda expression is not a valid expression at | |
164 | all. In either case, its main use is not to be evaluated as an | |
165 | expression, but to be called as a function. | |
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166 | |
167 | @menu | |
168 | * Lambda Components:: The parts of a lambda expression. | |
169 | * Simple Lambda:: A simple example. | |
170 | * Argument List:: Details and special features of argument lists. | |
171 | * Function Documentation:: How to put documentation in a function. | |
172 | @end menu | |
173 | ||
174 | @node Lambda Components | |
175 | @subsection Components of a Lambda Expression | |
176 | ||
177 | @ifinfo | |
178 | ||
179 | A function written in Lisp (a ``lambda expression'') is a list that | |
180 | looks like this: | |
181 | ||
182 | @example | |
183 | (lambda (@var{arg-variables}@dots{}) | |
184 | [@var{documentation-string}] | |
185 | [@var{interactive-declaration}] | |
186 | @var{body-forms}@dots{}) | |
187 | @end example | |
188 | @end ifinfo | |
189 | ||
190 | @cindex lambda list | |
191 | The first element of a lambda expression is always the symbol | |
192 | @code{lambda}. This indicates that the list represents a function. The | |
193 | reason functions are defined to start with @code{lambda} is so that | |
194 | other lists, intended for other uses, will not accidentally be valid as | |
195 | functions. | |
196 | ||
f9f59935 | 197 | The second element is a list of symbols---the argument variable names. |
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198 | This is called the @dfn{lambda list}. When a Lisp function is called, |
199 | the argument values are matched up against the variables in the lambda | |
200 | list, which are given local bindings with the values provided. | |
201 | @xref{Local Variables}. | |
202 | ||
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203 | The documentation string is a Lisp string object placed within the |
204 | function definition to describe the function for the Emacs help | |
205 | facilities. @xref{Function Documentation}. | |
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206 | |
207 | The interactive declaration is a list of the form @code{(interactive | |
208 | @var{code-string})}. This declares how to provide arguments if the | |
209 | function is used interactively. Functions with this declaration are called | |
210 | @dfn{commands}; they can be called using @kbd{M-x} or bound to a key. | |
211 | Functions not intended to be called in this way should not have interactive | |
212 | declarations. @xref{Defining Commands}, for how to write an interactive | |
213 | declaration. | |
214 | ||
215 | @cindex body of function | |
216 | The rest of the elements are the @dfn{body} of the function: the Lisp | |
217 | code to do the work of the function (or, as a Lisp programmer would say, | |
218 | ``a list of Lisp forms to evaluate''). The value returned by the | |
219 | function is the value returned by the last element of the body. | |
220 | ||
221 | @node Simple Lambda | |
222 | @subsection A Simple Lambda-Expression Example | |
223 | ||
224 | Consider for example the following function: | |
225 | ||
226 | @example | |
227 | (lambda (a b c) (+ a b c)) | |
228 | @end example | |
229 | ||
230 | @noindent | |
231 | We can call this function by writing it as the @sc{car} of an | |
232 | expression, like this: | |
233 | ||
234 | @example | |
235 | @group | |
236 | ((lambda (a b c) (+ a b c)) | |
237 | 1 2 3) | |
238 | @end group | |
239 | @end example | |
240 | ||
241 | @noindent | |
242 | This call evaluates the body of the lambda expression with the variable | |
243 | @code{a} bound to 1, @code{b} bound to 2, and @code{c} bound to 3. | |
244 | Evaluation of the body adds these three numbers, producing the result 6; | |
245 | therefore, this call to the function returns the value 6. | |
246 | ||
247 | Note that the arguments can be the results of other function calls, as in | |
248 | this example: | |
249 | ||
250 | @example | |
251 | @group | |
252 | ((lambda (a b c) (+ a b c)) | |
253 | 1 (* 2 3) (- 5 4)) | |
254 | @end group | |
255 | @end example | |
256 | ||
257 | @noindent | |
258 | This evaluates the arguments @code{1}, @code{(* 2 3)}, and @code{(- 5 | |
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259 | 4)} from left to right. Then it applies the lambda expression to the |
260 | argument values 1, 6 and 1 to produce the value 8. | |
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261 | |
262 | It is not often useful to write a lambda expression as the @sc{car} of | |
263 | a form in this way. You can get the same result, of making local | |
264 | variables and giving them values, using the special form @code{let} | |
265 | (@pxref{Local Variables}). And @code{let} is clearer and easier to use. | |
266 | In practice, lambda expressions are either stored as the function | |
267 | definitions of symbols, to produce named functions, or passed as | |
268 | arguments to other functions (@pxref{Anonymous Functions}). | |
269 | ||
270 | However, calls to explicit lambda expressions were very useful in the | |
271 | old days of Lisp, before the special form @code{let} was invented. At | |
272 | that time, they were the only way to bind and initialize local | |
273 | variables. | |
274 | ||
275 | @node Argument List | |
f9f59935 | 276 | @subsection Other Features of Argument Lists |
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277 | @kindex wrong-number-of-arguments |
278 | @cindex argument binding | |
279 | @cindex binding arguments | |
280 | ||
281 | Our simple sample function, @code{(lambda (a b c) (+ a b c))}, | |
282 | specifies three argument variables, so it must be called with three | |
283 | arguments: if you try to call it with only two arguments or four | |
284 | arguments, you get a @code{wrong-number-of-arguments} error. | |
285 | ||
286 | It is often convenient to write a function that allows certain | |
287 | arguments to be omitted. For example, the function @code{substring} | |
288 | accepts three arguments---a string, the start index and the end | |
289 | index---but the third argument defaults to the @var{length} of the | |
290 | string if you omit it. It is also convenient for certain functions to | |
f25df2ab | 291 | accept an indefinite number of arguments, as the functions @code{list} |
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292 | and @code{+} do. |
293 | ||
294 | @cindex optional arguments | |
295 | @cindex rest arguments | |
296 | @kindex &optional | |
297 | @kindex &rest | |
298 | To specify optional arguments that may be omitted when a function | |
299 | is called, simply include the keyword @code{&optional} before the optional | |
300 | arguments. To specify a list of zero or more extra arguments, include the | |
301 | keyword @code{&rest} before one final argument. | |
302 | ||
303 | Thus, the complete syntax for an argument list is as follows: | |
304 | ||
305 | @example | |
306 | @group | |
307 | (@var{required-vars}@dots{} | |
308 | @r{[}&optional @var{optional-vars}@dots{}@r{]} | |
309 | @r{[}&rest @var{rest-var}@r{]}) | |
310 | @end group | |
311 | @end example | |
312 | ||
313 | @noindent | |
314 | The square brackets indicate that the @code{&optional} and @code{&rest} | |
315 | clauses, and the variables that follow them, are optional. | |
316 | ||
317 | A call to the function requires one actual argument for each of the | |
318 | @var{required-vars}. There may be actual arguments for zero or more of | |
319 | the @var{optional-vars}, and there cannot be any actual arguments beyond | |
320 | that unless the lambda list uses @code{&rest}. In that case, there may | |
321 | be any number of extra actual arguments. | |
322 | ||
323 | If actual arguments for the optional and rest variables are omitted, | |
f25df2ab | 324 | then they always default to @code{nil}. There is no way for the |
9c52bf47 | 325 | function to distinguish between an explicit argument of @code{nil} and |
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326 | an omitted argument. However, the body of the function is free to |
327 | consider @code{nil} an abbreviation for some other meaningful value. | |
328 | This is what @code{substring} does; @code{nil} as the third argument to | |
329 | @code{substring} means to use the length of the string supplied. | |
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330 | |
331 | @cindex CL note---default optional arg | |
332 | @quotation | |
333 | @b{Common Lisp note:} Common Lisp allows the function to specify what | |
334 | default value to use when an optional argument is omitted; Emacs Lisp | |
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335 | always uses @code{nil}. Emacs Lisp does not support ``supplied-p'' |
336 | variables that tell you whether an argument was explicitly passed. | |
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337 | @end quotation |
338 | ||
339 | For example, an argument list that looks like this: | |
340 | ||
341 | @example | |
342 | (a b &optional c d &rest e) | |
343 | @end example | |
344 | ||
345 | @noindent | |
346 | binds @code{a} and @code{b} to the first two actual arguments, which are | |
347 | required. If one or two more arguments are provided, @code{c} and | |
348 | @code{d} are bound to them respectively; any arguments after the first | |
349 | four are collected into a list and @code{e} is bound to that list. If | |
350 | there are only two arguments, @code{c} is @code{nil}; if two or three | |
351 | arguments, @code{d} is @code{nil}; if four arguments or fewer, @code{e} | |
352 | is @code{nil}. | |
353 | ||
354 | There is no way to have required arguments following optional | |
355 | ones---it would not make sense. To see why this must be so, suppose | |
356 | that @code{c} in the example were optional and @code{d} were required. | |
357 | Suppose three actual arguments are given; which variable would the third | |
358 | argument be for? Similarly, it makes no sense to have any more | |
359 | arguments (either required or optional) after a @code{&rest} argument. | |
360 | ||
361 | Here are some examples of argument lists and proper calls: | |
362 | ||
363 | @smallexample | |
364 | ((lambda (n) (1+ n)) ; @r{One required:} | |
365 | 1) ; @r{requires exactly one argument.} | |
366 | @result{} 2 | |
367 | ((lambda (n &optional n1) ; @r{One required and one optional:} | |
368 | (if n1 (+ n n1) (1+ n))) ; @r{1 or 2 arguments.} | |
369 | 1 2) | |
370 | @result{} 3 | |
371 | ((lambda (n &rest ns) ; @r{One required and one rest:} | |
372 | (+ n (apply '+ ns))) ; @r{1 or more arguments.} | |
373 | 1 2 3 4 5) | |
374 | @result{} 15 | |
375 | @end smallexample | |
376 | ||
377 | @node Function Documentation | |
378 | @subsection Documentation Strings of Functions | |
379 | @cindex documentation of function | |
380 | ||
381 | A lambda expression may optionally have a @dfn{documentation string} just | |
382 | after the lambda list. This string does not affect execution of the | |
383 | function; it is a kind of comment, but a systematized comment which | |
384 | actually appears inside the Lisp world and can be used by the Emacs help | |
385 | facilities. @xref{Documentation}, for how the @var{documentation-string} is | |
386 | accessed. | |
387 | ||
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388 | It is a good idea to provide documentation strings for all the |
389 | functions in your program, even those that are only called from within | |
390 | your program. Documentation strings are like comments, except that they | |
391 | are easier to access. | |
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392 | |
393 | The first line of the documentation string should stand on its own, | |
394 | because @code{apropos} displays just this first line. It should consist | |
395 | of one or two complete sentences that summarize the function's purpose. | |
396 | ||
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397 | The start of the documentation string is usually indented in the source file, |
398 | but since these spaces come before the starting double-quote, they are not part of | |
9c52bf47 | 399 | the string. Some people make a practice of indenting any additional |
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400 | lines of the string so that the text lines up in the program source. |
401 | @emph{This is a mistake.} The indentation of the following lines is | |
402 | inside the string; what looks nice in the source code will look ugly | |
403 | when displayed by the help commands. | |
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404 | |
405 | You may wonder how the documentation string could be optional, since | |
406 | there are required components of the function that follow it (the body). | |
407 | Since evaluation of a string returns that string, without any side effects, | |
408 | it has no effect if it is not the last form in the body. Thus, in | |
409 | practice, there is no confusion between the first form of the body and the | |
410 | documentation string; if the only body form is a string then it serves both | |
411 | as the return value and as the documentation. | |
412 | ||
413 | @node Function Names | |
414 | @section Naming a Function | |
415 | @cindex function definition | |
416 | @cindex named function | |
417 | @cindex function name | |
418 | ||
419 | In most computer languages, every function has a name; the idea of a | |
420 | function without a name is nonsensical. In Lisp, a function in the | |
421 | strictest sense has no name. It is simply a list whose first element is | |
422 | @code{lambda}, or a primitive subr-object. | |
423 | ||
424 | However, a symbol can serve as the name of a function. This happens | |
425 | when you put the function in the symbol's @dfn{function cell} | |
426 | (@pxref{Symbol Components}). Then the symbol itself becomes a valid, | |
427 | callable function, equivalent to the list or subr-object that its | |
428 | function cell refers to. The contents of the function cell are also | |
429 | called the symbol's @dfn{function definition}. The procedure of using a | |
430 | symbol's function definition in place of the symbol is called | |
431 | @dfn{symbol function indirection}; see @ref{Function Indirection}. | |
432 | ||
433 | In practice, nearly all functions are given names in this way and | |
434 | referred to through their names. For example, the symbol @code{car} works | |
435 | as a function and does what it does because the primitive subr-object | |
436 | @code{#<subr car>} is stored in its function cell. | |
437 | ||
438 | We give functions names because it is convenient to refer to them by | |
439 | their names in Lisp expressions. For primitive subr-objects such as | |
440 | @code{#<subr car>}, names are the only way you can refer to them: there | |
441 | is no read syntax for such objects. For functions written in Lisp, the | |
442 | name is more convenient to use in a call than an explicit lambda | |
443 | expression. Also, a function with a name can refer to itself---it can | |
444 | be recursive. Writing the function's name in its own definition is much | |
445 | more convenient than making the function definition point to itself | |
446 | (something that is not impossible but that has various disadvantages in | |
447 | practice). | |
448 | ||
449 | We often identify functions with the symbols used to name them. For | |
450 | example, we often speak of ``the function @code{car}'', not | |
451 | distinguishing between the symbol @code{car} and the primitive | |
452 | subr-object that is its function definition. For most purposes, there | |
453 | is no need to distinguish. | |
454 | ||
455 | Even so, keep in mind that a function need not have a unique name. While | |
456 | a given function object @emph{usually} appears in the function cell of only | |
457 | one symbol, this is just a matter of convenience. It is easy to store | |
458 | it in several symbols using @code{fset}; then each of the symbols is | |
459 | equally well a name for the same function. | |
460 | ||
461 | A symbol used as a function name may also be used as a variable; | |
462 | these two uses of a symbol are independent and do not conflict. | |
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463 | (Some Lisp dialects, such as Scheme, do not distinguish between a |
464 | symbol's value and its function definition; a symbol's value as a variable | |
465 | is also its function definition.) | |
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466 | |
467 | @node Defining Functions | |
05fd2b65 | 468 | @section Defining Functions |
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469 | @cindex defining a function |
470 | ||
471 | We usually give a name to a function when it is first created. This | |
472 | is called @dfn{defining a function}, and it is done with the | |
473 | @code{defun} special form. | |
474 | ||
475 | @defspec defun name argument-list body-forms | |
476 | @code{defun} is the usual way to define new Lisp functions. It | |
477 | defines the symbol @var{name} as a function that looks like this: | |
478 | ||
479 | @example | |
480 | (lambda @var{argument-list} . @var{body-forms}) | |
481 | @end example | |
482 | ||
483 | @code{defun} stores this lambda expression in the function cell of | |
484 | @var{name}. It returns the value @var{name}, but usually we ignore this | |
485 | value. | |
486 | ||
487 | As described previously (@pxref{Lambda Expressions}), | |
488 | @var{argument-list} is a list of argument names and may include the | |
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489 | keywords @code{&optional} and @code{&rest}. Also, the first two of the |
490 | @var{body-forms} may be a documentation string and an interactive | |
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491 | declaration. |
492 | ||
493 | There is no conflict if the same symbol @var{name} is also used as a | |
494 | variable, since the symbol's value cell is independent of the function | |
495 | cell. @xref{Symbol Components}. | |
496 | ||
497 | Here are some examples: | |
498 | ||
499 | @example | |
500 | @group | |
501 | (defun foo () 5) | |
502 | @result{} foo | |
503 | @end group | |
504 | @group | |
505 | (foo) | |
506 | @result{} 5 | |
507 | @end group | |
508 | ||
509 | @group | |
510 | (defun bar (a &optional b &rest c) | |
511 | (list a b c)) | |
512 | @result{} bar | |
513 | @end group | |
514 | @group | |
515 | (bar 1 2 3 4 5) | |
516 | @result{} (1 2 (3 4 5)) | |
517 | @end group | |
518 | @group | |
519 | (bar 1) | |
520 | @result{} (1 nil nil) | |
521 | @end group | |
522 | @group | |
523 | (bar) | |
524 | @error{} Wrong number of arguments. | |
525 | @end group | |
526 | ||
527 | @group | |
528 | (defun capitalize-backwards () | |
529 | "Upcase the last letter of a word." | |
530 | (interactive) | |
531 | (backward-word 1) | |
532 | (forward-word 1) | |
533 | (backward-char 1) | |
534 | (capitalize-word 1)) | |
535 | @result{} capitalize-backwards | |
536 | @end group | |
537 | @end example | |
538 | ||
539 | Be careful not to redefine existing functions unintentionally. | |
540 | @code{defun} redefines even primitive functions such as @code{car} | |
541 | without any hesitation or notification. Redefining a function already | |
542 | defined is often done deliberately, and there is no way to distinguish | |
543 | deliberate redefinition from unintentional redefinition. | |
544 | @end defspec | |
545 | ||
546 | @defun defalias name definition | |
547 | This special form defines the symbol @var{name} as a function, with | |
f25df2ab | 548 | definition @var{definition} (which can be any valid Lisp function). |
bfe721d1 KH |
549 | |
550 | The proper place to use @code{defalias} is where a specific function | |
551 | name is being defined---especially where that name appears explicitly in | |
552 | the source file being loaded. This is because @code{defalias} records | |
553 | which file defined the function, just like @code{defun} | |
554 | (@pxref{Unloading}). | |
555 | ||
556 | By contrast, in programs that manipulate function definitions for other | |
557 | purposes, it is better to use @code{fset}, which does not keep such | |
558 | records. | |
9c52bf47 KH |
559 | @end defun |
560 | ||
bfe721d1 KH |
561 | See also @code{defsubst}, which defines a function like @code{defun} |
562 | and tells the Lisp compiler to open-code it. @xref{Inline Functions}. | |
563 | ||
9c52bf47 KH |
564 | @node Calling Functions |
565 | @section Calling Functions | |
566 | @cindex function invocation | |
567 | @cindex calling a function | |
568 | ||
569 | Defining functions is only half the battle. Functions don't do | |
570 | anything until you @dfn{call} them, i.e., tell them to run. Calling a | |
571 | function is also known as @dfn{invocation}. | |
572 | ||
f25df2ab RS |
573 | The most common way of invoking a function is by evaluating a list. |
574 | For example, evaluating the list @code{(concat "a" "b")} calls the | |
575 | function @code{concat} with arguments @code{"a"} and @code{"b"}. | |
576 | @xref{Evaluation}, for a description of evaluation. | |
9c52bf47 KH |
577 | |
578 | When you write a list as an expression in your program, the function | |
f9f59935 RS |
579 | name it calls is written in your program. This means that you choose |
580 | which function to call, and how many arguments to give it, when you | |
581 | write the program. Usually that's just what you want. Occasionally you | |
582 | need to compute at run time which function to call. To do that, use the | |
583 | functions @code{funcall} and @code{apply}. | |
9c52bf47 KH |
584 | |
585 | @defun funcall function &rest arguments | |
586 | @code{funcall} calls @var{function} with @var{arguments}, and returns | |
587 | whatever @var{function} returns. | |
588 | ||
589 | Since @code{funcall} is a function, all of its arguments, including | |
590 | @var{function}, are evaluated before @code{funcall} is called. This | |
591 | means that you can use any expression to obtain the function to be | |
592 | called. It also means that @code{funcall} does not see the expressions | |
593 | you write for the @var{arguments}, only their values. These values are | |
594 | @emph{not} evaluated a second time in the act of calling @var{function}; | |
595 | @code{funcall} enters the normal procedure for calling a function at the | |
596 | place where the arguments have already been evaluated. | |
597 | ||
598 | The argument @var{function} must be either a Lisp function or a | |
599 | primitive function. Special forms and macros are not allowed, because | |
600 | they make sense only when given the ``unevaluated'' argument | |
601 | expressions. @code{funcall} cannot provide these because, as we saw | |
602 | above, it never knows them in the first place. | |
603 | ||
604 | @example | |
605 | @group | |
606 | (setq f 'list) | |
607 | @result{} list | |
608 | @end group | |
609 | @group | |
610 | (funcall f 'x 'y 'z) | |
611 | @result{} (x y z) | |
612 | @end group | |
613 | @group | |
614 | (funcall f 'x 'y '(z)) | |
615 | @result{} (x y (z)) | |
616 | @end group | |
617 | @group | |
618 | (funcall 'and t nil) | |
619 | @error{} Invalid function: #<subr and> | |
620 | @end group | |
621 | @end example | |
622 | ||
623 | Compare these example with the examples of @code{apply}. | |
624 | @end defun | |
625 | ||
626 | @defun apply function &rest arguments | |
627 | @code{apply} calls @var{function} with @var{arguments}, just like | |
628 | @code{funcall} but with one difference: the last of @var{arguments} is a | |
f9f59935 RS |
629 | list of objects, which are passed to @var{function} as separate |
630 | arguments, rather than a single list. We say that @code{apply} | |
631 | @dfn{spreads} this list so that each individual element becomes an | |
632 | argument. | |
9c52bf47 KH |
633 | |
634 | @code{apply} returns the result of calling @var{function}. As with | |
635 | @code{funcall}, @var{function} must either be a Lisp function or a | |
636 | primitive function; special forms and macros do not make sense in | |
637 | @code{apply}. | |
638 | ||
639 | @example | |
640 | @group | |
641 | (setq f 'list) | |
642 | @result{} list | |
643 | @end group | |
644 | @group | |
645 | (apply f 'x 'y 'z) | |
646 | @error{} Wrong type argument: listp, z | |
647 | @end group | |
648 | @group | |
649 | (apply '+ 1 2 '(3 4)) | |
650 | @result{} 10 | |
651 | @end group | |
652 | @group | |
653 | (apply '+ '(1 2 3 4)) | |
654 | @result{} 10 | |
655 | @end group | |
656 | ||
657 | @group | |
658 | (apply 'append '((a b c) nil (x y z) nil)) | |
659 | @result{} (a b c x y z) | |
660 | @end group | |
661 | @end example | |
662 | ||
663 | For an interesting example of using @code{apply}, see the description of | |
664 | @code{mapcar}, in @ref{Mapping Functions}. | |
665 | @end defun | |
666 | ||
667 | @cindex functionals | |
668 | It is common for Lisp functions to accept functions as arguments or | |
669 | find them in data structures (especially in hook variables and property | |
670 | lists) and call them using @code{funcall} or @code{apply}. Functions | |
671 | that accept function arguments are often called @dfn{functionals}. | |
672 | ||
bfe721d1 KH |
673 | Sometimes, when you call a functional, it is useful to supply a no-op |
674 | function as the argument. Here are two different kinds of no-op | |
9c52bf47 KH |
675 | function: |
676 | ||
677 | @defun identity arg | |
678 | This function returns @var{arg} and has no side effects. | |
679 | @end defun | |
680 | ||
681 | @defun ignore &rest args | |
682 | This function ignores any arguments and returns @code{nil}. | |
683 | @end defun | |
684 | ||
685 | @node Mapping Functions | |
686 | @section Mapping Functions | |
687 | @cindex mapping functions | |
688 | ||
689 | A @dfn{mapping function} applies a given function to each element of a | |
f9f59935 | 690 | list or other collection. Emacs Lisp has several such functions; |
9c52bf47 | 691 | @code{mapcar} and @code{mapconcat}, which scan a list, are described |
f9f59935 RS |
692 | here. @xref{Creating Symbols}, for the function @code{mapatoms} which |
693 | maps over the symbols in an obarray. @xref{Char-Tables}, for the | |
694 | function @code{map-char-table}, which maps over the elements in a | |
695 | char-table. | |
9c52bf47 KH |
696 | |
697 | @defun mapcar function sequence | |
f25df2ab RS |
698 | @code{mapcar} applies @var{function} to each element of @var{sequence} |
699 | in turn, and returns a list of the results. | |
9c52bf47 | 700 | |
f25df2ab | 701 | The argument @var{sequence} may be a list, a vector, or a string. The |
9c52bf47 KH |
702 | result is always a list. The length of the result is the same as the |
703 | length of @var{sequence}. | |
704 | ||
705 | @smallexample | |
706 | @group | |
707 | @exdent @r{For example:} | |
708 | ||
709 | (mapcar 'car '((a b) (c d) (e f))) | |
710 | @result{} (a c e) | |
711 | (mapcar '1+ [1 2 3]) | |
712 | @result{} (2 3 4) | |
713 | (mapcar 'char-to-string "abc") | |
714 | @result{} ("a" "b" "c") | |
715 | @end group | |
716 | ||
717 | @group | |
718 | ;; @r{Call each function in @code{my-hooks}.} | |
719 | (mapcar 'funcall my-hooks) | |
720 | @end group | |
721 | ||
722 | @group | |
723 | (defun mapcar* (f &rest args) | |
724 | "Apply FUNCTION to successive cars of all ARGS. | |
725 | Return the list of results." | |
726 | ;; @r{If no list is exhausted,} | |
727 | (if (not (memq 'nil args)) | |
728 | ;; @r{apply function to @sc{CAR}s.} | |
729 | (cons (apply f (mapcar 'car args)) | |
730 | (apply 'mapcar* f | |
731 | ;; @r{Recurse for rest of elements.} | |
732 | (mapcar 'cdr args))))) | |
733 | @end group | |
734 | ||
735 | @group | |
736 | (mapcar* 'cons '(a b c) '(1 2 3 4)) | |
737 | @result{} ((a . 1) (b . 2) (c . 3)) | |
738 | @end group | |
739 | @end smallexample | |
740 | @end defun | |
741 | ||
742 | @defun mapconcat function sequence separator | |
743 | @code{mapconcat} applies @var{function} to each element of | |
744 | @var{sequence}: the results, which must be strings, are concatenated. | |
745 | Between each pair of result strings, @code{mapconcat} inserts the string | |
746 | @var{separator}. Usually @var{separator} contains a space or comma or | |
747 | other suitable punctuation. | |
748 | ||
749 | The argument @var{function} must be a function that can take one | |
750 | argument and return a string. | |
751 | ||
752 | @smallexample | |
753 | @group | |
754 | (mapconcat 'symbol-name | |
755 | '(The cat in the hat) | |
756 | " ") | |
757 | @result{} "The cat in the hat" | |
758 | @end group | |
759 | ||
760 | @group | |
761 | (mapconcat (function (lambda (x) (format "%c" (1+ x)))) | |
762 | "HAL-8000" | |
763 | "") | |
764 | @result{} "IBM.9111" | |
765 | @end group | |
766 | @end smallexample | |
767 | @end defun | |
768 | ||
769 | @node Anonymous Functions | |
770 | @section Anonymous Functions | |
771 | @cindex anonymous function | |
772 | ||
773 | In Lisp, a function is a list that starts with @code{lambda}, a | |
774 | byte-code function compiled from such a list, or alternatively a | |
775 | primitive subr-object; names are ``extra''. Although usually functions | |
776 | are defined with @code{defun} and given names at the same time, it is | |
777 | occasionally more concise to use an explicit lambda expression---an | |
778 | anonymous function. Such a list is valid wherever a function name is. | |
779 | ||
780 | Any method of creating such a list makes a valid function. Even this: | |
781 | ||
782 | @smallexample | |
783 | @group | |
784 | (setq silly (append '(lambda (x)) (list (list '+ (* 3 4) 'x)))) | |
785 | @result{} (lambda (x) (+ 12 x)) | |
786 | @end group | |
787 | @end smallexample | |
788 | ||
789 | @noindent | |
790 | This computes a list that looks like @code{(lambda (x) (+ 12 x))} and | |
791 | makes it the value (@emph{not} the function definition!) of | |
792 | @code{silly}. | |
793 | ||
794 | Here is how we might call this function: | |
795 | ||
796 | @example | |
797 | @group | |
798 | (funcall silly 1) | |
799 | @result{} 13 | |
800 | @end group | |
801 | @end example | |
802 | ||
803 | @noindent | |
804 | (It does @emph{not} work to write @code{(silly 1)}, because this function | |
805 | is not the @emph{function definition} of @code{silly}. We have not given | |
806 | @code{silly} any function definition, just a value as a variable.) | |
807 | ||
808 | Most of the time, anonymous functions are constants that appear in | |
f9f59935 RS |
809 | your program. For example, you might want to pass one as an argument to |
810 | the function @code{mapcar}, which applies any given function to each | |
811 | element of a list. | |
812 | ||
813 | Here we define a function @code{change-property} which | |
814 | uses a function as its third argument: | |
9c52bf47 KH |
815 | |
816 | @example | |
817 | @group | |
f9f59935 RS |
818 | (defun change-property (symbol prop function) |
819 | (let ((value (get symbol prop))) | |
820 | (put symbol prop (funcall function value)))) | |
9c52bf47 | 821 | @end group |
f9f59935 RS |
822 | @end example |
823 | ||
824 | @noindent | |
825 | Here we define a function that uses @code{change-property}, | |
826 | passing a function that doubles its argument: | |
827 | ||
828 | @example | |
9c52bf47 | 829 | @group |
f9f59935 RS |
830 | (defun double-property (symbol prop) |
831 | (change-property symbol prop '(lambda (x) (* 2 x)))) | |
9c52bf47 KH |
832 | @end group |
833 | @end example | |
834 | ||
835 | @noindent | |
836 | In such cases, we usually use the special form @code{function} instead | |
f9f59935 | 837 | of simple quotation to quote the anonymous function, like this: |
9c52bf47 KH |
838 | |
839 | @example | |
840 | @group | |
f9f59935 RS |
841 | (defun double-property (symbol prop) |
842 | (change-property symbol prop (function (lambda (x) (* 2 x))))) | |
9c52bf47 KH |
843 | @end group |
844 | @end example | |
845 | ||
f9f59935 RS |
846 | Using @code{function} instead of @code{quote} makes a difference if you |
847 | compile the function @code{double-property}. For example, if you | |
848 | compile the second definition of @code{double-property}, the anonymous | |
849 | function is compiled as well. By contrast, if you compile the first | |
850 | definition which uses ordinary @code{quote}, the argument passed to | |
851 | @code{change-property} is the precise list shown: | |
9c52bf47 KH |
852 | |
853 | @example | |
854 | (lambda (x) (* x 2)) | |
855 | @end example | |
856 | ||
857 | @noindent | |
858 | The Lisp compiler cannot assume this list is a function, even though it | |
f9f59935 RS |
859 | looks like one, since it does not know what @code{change-property} will |
860 | do with the list. Perhaps will check whether the @sc{car} of the third | |
861 | element is the symbol @code{*}! Using @code{function} tells the | |
862 | compiler it is safe to go ahead and compile the constant function. | |
9c52bf47 KH |
863 | |
864 | We sometimes write @code{function} instead of @code{quote} when | |
865 | quoting the name of a function, but this usage is just a sort of | |
f9f59935 | 866 | comment: |
9c52bf47 KH |
867 | |
868 | @example | |
869 | (function @var{symbol}) @equiv{} (quote @var{symbol}) @equiv{} '@var{symbol} | |
870 | @end example | |
871 | ||
f9f59935 RS |
872 | @defspec function function-object |
873 | @cindex function quoting | |
874 | This special form returns @var{function-object} without evaluating it. | |
875 | In this, it is equivalent to @code{quote}. However, it serves as a | |
876 | note to the Emacs Lisp compiler that @var{function-object} is intended | |
877 | to be used only as a function, and therefore can safely be compiled. | |
878 | Contrast this with @code{quote}, in @ref{Quoting}. | |
879 | @end defspec | |
880 | ||
9c52bf47 KH |
881 | See @code{documentation} in @ref{Accessing Documentation}, for a |
882 | realistic example using @code{function} and an anonymous function. | |
883 | ||
884 | @node Function Cells | |
885 | @section Accessing Function Cell Contents | |
886 | ||
887 | The @dfn{function definition} of a symbol is the object stored in the | |
888 | function cell of the symbol. The functions described here access, test, | |
889 | and set the function cell of symbols. | |
890 | ||
f25df2ab RS |
891 | See also the function @code{indirect-function} in @ref{Function |
892 | Indirection}. | |
893 | ||
9c52bf47 KH |
894 | @defun symbol-function symbol |
895 | @kindex void-function | |
896 | This returns the object in the function cell of @var{symbol}. If the | |
897 | symbol's function cell is void, a @code{void-function} error is | |
898 | signaled. | |
899 | ||
900 | This function does not check that the returned object is a legitimate | |
901 | function. | |
902 | ||
903 | @example | |
904 | @group | |
905 | (defun bar (n) (+ n 2)) | |
906 | @result{} bar | |
907 | @end group | |
908 | @group | |
909 | (symbol-function 'bar) | |
910 | @result{} (lambda (n) (+ n 2)) | |
911 | @end group | |
912 | @group | |
913 | (fset 'baz 'bar) | |
914 | @result{} bar | |
915 | @end group | |
916 | @group | |
917 | (symbol-function 'baz) | |
918 | @result{} bar | |
919 | @end group | |
920 | @end example | |
921 | @end defun | |
922 | ||
923 | @cindex void function cell | |
924 | If you have never given a symbol any function definition, we say that | |
925 | that symbol's function cell is @dfn{void}. In other words, the function | |
926 | cell does not have any Lisp object in it. If you try to call such a symbol | |
927 | as a function, it signals a @code{void-function} error. | |
928 | ||
929 | Note that void is not the same as @code{nil} or the symbol | |
930 | @code{void}. The symbols @code{nil} and @code{void} are Lisp objects, | |
931 | and can be stored into a function cell just as any other object can be | |
932 | (and they can be valid functions if you define them in turn with | |
f25df2ab | 933 | @code{defun}). A void function cell contains no object whatsoever. |
9c52bf47 KH |
934 | |
935 | You can test the voidness of a symbol's function definition with | |
936 | @code{fboundp}. After you have given a symbol a function definition, you | |
937 | can make it void once more using @code{fmakunbound}. | |
938 | ||
939 | @defun fboundp symbol | |
940 | This function returns @code{t} if the symbol has an object in its | |
941 | function cell, @code{nil} otherwise. It does not check that the object | |
942 | is a legitimate function. | |
943 | @end defun | |
944 | ||
945 | @defun fmakunbound symbol | |
946 | This function makes @var{symbol}'s function cell void, so that a | |
947 | subsequent attempt to access this cell will cause a @code{void-function} | |
948 | error. (See also @code{makunbound}, in @ref{Local Variables}.) | |
949 | ||
950 | @example | |
951 | @group | |
952 | (defun foo (x) x) | |
f9f59935 | 953 | @result{} foo |
9c52bf47 KH |
954 | @end group |
955 | @group | |
f25df2ab RS |
956 | (foo 1) |
957 | @result{}1 | |
958 | @end group | |
959 | @group | |
9c52bf47 | 960 | (fmakunbound 'foo) |
f9f59935 | 961 | @result{} foo |
9c52bf47 KH |
962 | @end group |
963 | @group | |
964 | (foo 1) | |
965 | @error{} Symbol's function definition is void: foo | |
966 | @end group | |
967 | @end example | |
968 | @end defun | |
969 | ||
baa573a3 | 970 | @defun fset symbol definition |
f9f59935 RS |
971 | This function stores @var{definition} in the function cell of |
972 | @var{symbol}. The result is @var{definition}. Normally | |
973 | @var{definition} should be a function or the name of a function, but | |
974 | this is not checked. The argument @var{symbol} is an ordinary evaluated | |
975 | argument. | |
9c52bf47 KH |
976 | |
977 | There are three normal uses of this function: | |
978 | ||
979 | @itemize @bullet | |
980 | @item | |
981 | Copying one symbol's function definition to another. (In other words, | |
982 | making an alternate name for a function.) | |
983 | ||
984 | @item | |
985 | Giving a symbol a function definition that is not a list and therefore | |
f25df2ab RS |
986 | cannot be made with @code{defun}. For example, you can use @code{fset} |
987 | to give a symbol @code{s1} a function definition which is another symbol | |
988 | @code{s2}; then @code{s1} serves as an alias for whatever definition | |
989 | @code{s2} presently has. | |
9c52bf47 KH |
990 | |
991 | @item | |
992 | In constructs for defining or altering functions. If @code{defun} | |
993 | were not a primitive, it could be written in Lisp (as a macro) using | |
994 | @code{fset}. | |
995 | @end itemize | |
996 | ||
997 | Here are examples of the first two uses: | |
998 | ||
999 | @example | |
1000 | @group | |
1001 | ;; @r{Give @code{first} the same definition @code{car} has.} | |
1002 | (fset 'first (symbol-function 'car)) | |
1003 | @result{} #<subr car> | |
1004 | @end group | |
1005 | @group | |
1006 | (first '(1 2 3)) | |
1007 | @result{} 1 | |
1008 | @end group | |
1009 | ||
1010 | @group | |
1011 | ;; @r{Make the symbol @code{car} the function definition of @code{xfirst}.} | |
1012 | (fset 'xfirst 'car) | |
1013 | @result{} car | |
1014 | @end group | |
1015 | @group | |
1016 | (xfirst '(1 2 3)) | |
1017 | @result{} 1 | |
1018 | @end group | |
1019 | @group | |
1020 | (symbol-function 'xfirst) | |
1021 | @result{} car | |
1022 | @end group | |
1023 | @group | |
1024 | (symbol-function (symbol-function 'xfirst)) | |
1025 | @result{} #<subr car> | |
1026 | @end group | |
1027 | ||
1028 | @group | |
1029 | ;; @r{Define a named keyboard macro.} | |
1030 | (fset 'kill-two-lines "\^u2\^k") | |
1031 | @result{} "\^u2\^k" | |
1032 | @end group | |
1033 | @end example | |
f25df2ab RS |
1034 | |
1035 | See also the related function @code{defalias}, in @ref{Defining | |
1036 | Functions}. | |
9c52bf47 KH |
1037 | @end defun |
1038 | ||
1039 | When writing a function that extends a previously defined function, | |
bfe721d1 | 1040 | the following idiom is sometimes used: |
9c52bf47 KH |
1041 | |
1042 | @example | |
1043 | (fset 'old-foo (symbol-function 'foo)) | |
1044 | (defun foo () | |
1045 | "Just like old-foo, except more so." | |
1046 | @group | |
1047 | (old-foo) | |
1048 | (more-so)) | |
1049 | @end group | |
1050 | @end example | |
1051 | ||
1052 | @noindent | |
1053 | This does not work properly if @code{foo} has been defined to autoload. | |
1054 | In such a case, when @code{foo} calls @code{old-foo}, Lisp attempts | |
1055 | to define @code{old-foo} by loading a file. Since this presumably | |
1056 | defines @code{foo} rather than @code{old-foo}, it does not produce the | |
1057 | proper results. The only way to avoid this problem is to make sure the | |
1058 | file is loaded before moving aside the old definition of @code{foo}. | |
1059 | ||
bfe721d1 KH |
1060 | But it is unmodular and unclean, in any case, for a Lisp file to |
1061 | redefine a function defined elsewhere. | |
1062 | ||
9c52bf47 KH |
1063 | @node Inline Functions |
1064 | @section Inline Functions | |
1065 | @cindex inline functions | |
1066 | ||
1067 | @findex defsubst | |
1068 | You can define an @dfn{inline function} by using @code{defsubst} instead | |
1069 | of @code{defun}. An inline function works just like an ordinary | |
1070 | function except for one thing: when you compile a call to the function, | |
1071 | the function's definition is open-coded into the caller. | |
1072 | ||
1073 | Making a function inline makes explicit calls run faster. But it also | |
1074 | has disadvantages. For one thing, it reduces flexibility; if you change | |
1075 | the definition of the function, calls already inlined still use the old | |
1076 | definition until you recompile them. Since the flexibility of | |
1077 | redefining functions is an important feature of Emacs, you should not | |
1078 | make a function inline unless its speed is really crucial. | |
1079 | ||
1080 | Another disadvantage is that making a large function inline can increase | |
1081 | the size of compiled code both in files and in memory. Since the speed | |
1082 | advantage of inline functions is greatest for small functions, you | |
1083 | generally should not make large functions inline. | |
1084 | ||
1085 | It's possible to define a macro to expand into the same code that an | |
1086 | inline function would execute. But the macro would have a limitation: | |
1087 | you can use it only explicitly---a macro cannot be called with | |
1088 | @code{apply}, @code{mapcar} and so on. Also, it takes some work to | |
1089 | convert an ordinary function into a macro. (@xref{Macros}.) To convert | |
1090 | it into an inline function is very easy; simply replace @code{defun} | |
1091 | with @code{defsubst}. Since each argument of an inline function is | |
1092 | evaluated exactly once, you needn't worry about how many times the | |
1093 | body uses the arguments, as you do for macros. (@xref{Argument | |
1094 | Evaluation}.) | |
1095 | ||
f25df2ab | 1096 | Inline functions can be used and open-coded later on in the same file, |
9c52bf47 KH |
1097 | following the definition, just like macros. |
1098 | ||
bfe721d1 | 1099 | @c Emacs versions prior to 19 did not have inline functions. |
9c52bf47 KH |
1100 | |
1101 | @node Related Topics | |
1102 | @section Other Topics Related to Functions | |
1103 | ||
1104 | Here is a table of several functions that do things related to | |
1105 | function calling and function definitions. They are documented | |
1106 | elsewhere, but we provide cross references here. | |
1107 | ||
1108 | @table @code | |
1109 | @item apply | |
1110 | See @ref{Calling Functions}. | |
1111 | ||
1112 | @item autoload | |
1113 | See @ref{Autoload}. | |
1114 | ||
1115 | @item call-interactively | |
1116 | See @ref{Interactive Call}. | |
1117 | ||
1118 | @item commandp | |
1119 | See @ref{Interactive Call}. | |
1120 | ||
1121 | @item documentation | |
1122 | See @ref{Accessing Documentation}. | |
1123 | ||
1124 | @item eval | |
1125 | See @ref{Eval}. | |
1126 | ||
1127 | @item funcall | |
1128 | See @ref{Calling Functions}. | |
1129 | ||
1130 | @item ignore | |
1131 | See @ref{Calling Functions}. | |
1132 | ||
1133 | @item indirect-function | |
1134 | See @ref{Function Indirection}. | |
1135 | ||
1136 | @item interactive | |
1137 | See @ref{Using Interactive}. | |
1138 | ||
1139 | @item interactive-p | |
1140 | See @ref{Interactive Call}. | |
1141 | ||
1142 | @item mapatoms | |
1143 | See @ref{Creating Symbols}. | |
1144 | ||
1145 | @item mapcar | |
1146 | See @ref{Mapping Functions}. | |
1147 | ||
1148 | @item mapconcat | |
1149 | See @ref{Mapping Functions}. | |
1150 | ||
1151 | @item undefined | |
1152 | See @ref{Key Lookup}. | |
1153 | @end table | |
1154 |