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1 | @c -*-texinfo-*- |
2 | @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual. | |
651f374c | 3 | @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1998, 1999, 2002, 2003, |
ceb4c4d3 | 4 | @c 2004, 2005, 2006 Free Software Foundation, Inc. |
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5 | @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions. |
6 | @setfilename ../info/lists | |
7 | @node Lists, Sequences Arrays Vectors, Strings and Characters, Top | |
8 | @chapter Lists | |
9 | @cindex list | |
10 | @cindex element (of list) | |
11 | ||
12 | A @dfn{list} represents a sequence of zero or more elements (which may | |
13 | be any Lisp objects). The important difference between lists and | |
14 | vectors is that two or more lists can share part of their structure; in | |
15 | addition, you can insert or delete elements in a list without copying | |
16 | the whole list. | |
17 | ||
18 | @menu | |
19 | * Cons Cells:: How lists are made out of cons cells. | |
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20 | * List-related Predicates:: Is this object a list? Comparing two lists. |
21 | * List Elements:: Extracting the pieces of a list. | |
22 | * Building Lists:: Creating list structure. | |
39872724 | 23 | * List Variables:: Modifying lists stored in variables. |
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24 | * Modifying Lists:: Storing new pieces into an existing list. |
25 | * Sets And Lists:: A list can represent a finite mathematical set. | |
26 | * Association Lists:: A list can represent a finite relation or mapping. | |
a99eb78d | 27 | * Rings:: Managing a fixed-size ring of objects. |
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28 | @end menu |
29 | ||
30 | @node Cons Cells | |
31 | @section Lists and Cons Cells | |
32 | @cindex lists and cons cells | |
33 | @cindex @code{nil} and lists | |
34 | ||
35 | Lists in Lisp are not a primitive data type; they are built up from | |
2b3fc6c3 | 36 | @dfn{cons cells}. A cons cell is a data object that represents an |
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37 | ordered pair. That is, it has two slots, and each slot @dfn{holds}, or |
38 | @dfn{refers to}, some Lisp object. One slot is known as the @sc{car}, | |
39 | and the other is known as the @sc{cdr}. (These names are traditional; | |
40 | see @ref{Cons Cell Type}.) @sc{cdr} is pronounced ``could-er.'' | |
73804d4b | 41 | |
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42 | We say that ``the @sc{car} of this cons cell is'' whatever object |
43 | its @sc{car} slot currently holds, and likewise for the @sc{cdr}. | |
44 | ||
45 | A list is a series of cons cells ``chained together,'' so that each | |
05aea714 | 46 | cell refers to the next one. There is one cons cell for each element of |
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47 | the list. By convention, the @sc{car}s of the cons cells hold the |
48 | elements of the list, and the @sc{cdr}s are used to chain the list: the | |
49 | @sc{cdr} slot of each cons cell refers to the following cons cell. The | |
50 | @sc{cdr} of the last cons cell is @code{nil}. This asymmetry between | |
51 | the @sc{car} and the @sc{cdr} is entirely a matter of convention; at the | |
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52 | level of cons cells, the @sc{car} and @sc{cdr} slots have the same |
53 | characteristics. | |
54 | ||
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55 | @cindex true list |
56 | Since @code{nil} is the conventional value to put in the @sc{cdr} of | |
57 | the last cons cell in the list, we call that case a @dfn{true list}. | |
58 | ||
59 | In Lisp, we consider the symbol @code{nil} a list as well as a | |
60 | symbol; it is the list with no elements. For convenience, the symbol | |
61 | @code{nil} is considered to have @code{nil} as its @sc{cdr} (and also | |
62 | as its @sc{car}). Therefore, the @sc{cdr} of a true list is always a | |
63 | true list. | |
64 | ||
65 | @cindex dotted list | |
66 | @cindex circular list | |
67 | If the @sc{cdr} of a list's last cons cell is some other value, | |
68 | neither @code{nil} nor another cons cell, we call the structure a | |
69 | @dfn{dotted list}, since its printed representation would use | |
70 | @samp{.}. There is one other possibility: some cons cell's @sc{cdr} | |
71 | could point to one of the previous cons cells in the list. We call | |
72 | that structure a @dfn{circular list}. | |
73 | ||
74 | For some purposes, it does not matter whether a list is true, | |
75 | circular or dotted. If the program doesn't look far enough down the | |
76 | list to see the @sc{cdr} of the final cons cell, it won't care. | |
77 | However, some functions that operate on lists demand true lists and | |
78 | signal errors if given a dotted list. Most functions that try to find | |
79 | the end of a list enter infinite loops if given a circular list. | |
80 | ||
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81 | @cindex list structure |
82 | Because most cons cells are used as part of lists, the phrase | |
83 | @dfn{list structure} has come to mean any structure made out of cons | |
84 | cells. | |
85 | ||
3fd64c56 | 86 | The @sc{cdr} of any nonempty true list @var{l} is a list containing all the |
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87 | elements of @var{l} except the first. |
88 | ||
2b3fc6c3 | 89 | @xref{Cons Cell Type}, for the read and print syntax of cons cells and |
5838fa52 | 90 | lists, and for ``box and arrow'' illustrations of lists. |
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91 | |
92 | @node List-related Predicates | |
93 | @section Predicates on Lists | |
94 | ||
23e69ab1 RS |
95 | The following predicates test whether a Lisp object is an atom, |
96 | whether it is a cons cell or is a list, or whether it is the | |
97 | distinguished object @code{nil}. (Many of these predicates can be | |
98 | defined in terms of the others, but they are used so often that it is | |
99 | worth having all of them.) | |
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100 | |
101 | @defun consp object | |
102 | This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a cons cell, @code{nil} | |
103 | otherwise. @code{nil} is not a cons cell, although it @emph{is} a list. | |
104 | @end defun | |
105 | ||
106 | @defun atom object | |
107 | @cindex atoms | |
108 | This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is an atom, @code{nil} | |
109 | otherwise. All objects except cons cells are atoms. The symbol | |
110 | @code{nil} is an atom and is also a list; it is the only Lisp object | |
2b3fc6c3 | 111 | that is both. |
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112 | |
113 | @example | |
114 | (atom @var{object}) @equiv{} (not (consp @var{object})) | |
115 | @end example | |
116 | @end defun | |
117 | ||
118 | @defun listp object | |
119 | This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a cons cell or | |
120 | @code{nil}. Otherwise, it returns @code{nil}. | |
121 | ||
122 | @example | |
123 | @group | |
124 | (listp '(1)) | |
125 | @result{} t | |
126 | @end group | |
127 | @group | |
128 | (listp '()) | |
129 | @result{} t | |
130 | @end group | |
131 | @end example | |
132 | @end defun | |
133 | ||
134 | @defun nlistp object | |
135 | This function is the opposite of @code{listp}: it returns @code{t} if | |
136 | @var{object} is not a list. Otherwise, it returns @code{nil}. | |
137 | ||
138 | @example | |
139 | (listp @var{object}) @equiv{} (not (nlistp @var{object})) | |
140 | @end example | |
141 | @end defun | |
142 | ||
143 | @defun null object | |
144 | This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is @code{nil}, and | |
145 | returns @code{nil} otherwise. This function is identical to @code{not}, | |
146 | but as a matter of clarity we use @code{null} when @var{object} is | |
147 | considered a list and @code{not} when it is considered a truth value | |
148 | (see @code{not} in @ref{Combining Conditions}). | |
149 | ||
150 | @example | |
151 | @group | |
152 | (null '(1)) | |
153 | @result{} nil | |
154 | @end group | |
155 | @group | |
156 | (null '()) | |
157 | @result{} t | |
158 | @end group | |
159 | @end example | |
160 | @end defun | |
161 | ||
ec221d13 | 162 | @need 2000 |
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163 | |
164 | @node List Elements | |
165 | @section Accessing Elements of Lists | |
166 | @cindex list elements | |
167 | ||
168 | @defun car cons-cell | |
b6954afd | 169 | This function returns the value referred to by the first slot of the |
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170 | cons cell @var{cons-cell}. Expressed another way, this function |
171 | returns the @sc{car} of @var{cons-cell}. | |
172 | ||
173 | As a special case, if @var{cons-cell} is @code{nil}, then @code{car} | |
174 | is defined to return @code{nil}; therefore, any list is a valid argument | |
175 | for @code{car}. An error is signaled if the argument is not a cons cell | |
176 | or @code{nil}. | |
177 | ||
178 | @example | |
179 | @group | |
180 | (car '(a b c)) | |
181 | @result{} a | |
182 | @end group | |
183 | @group | |
184 | (car '()) | |
185 | @result{} nil | |
186 | @end group | |
187 | @end example | |
188 | @end defun | |
189 | ||
190 | @defun cdr cons-cell | |
b6954afd | 191 | This function returns the value referred to by the second slot of |
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192 | the cons cell @var{cons-cell}. Expressed another way, this function |
193 | returns the @sc{cdr} of @var{cons-cell}. | |
194 | ||
195 | As a special case, if @var{cons-cell} is @code{nil}, then @code{cdr} | |
196 | is defined to return @code{nil}; therefore, any list is a valid argument | |
197 | for @code{cdr}. An error is signaled if the argument is not a cons cell | |
198 | or @code{nil}. | |
199 | ||
200 | @example | |
201 | @group | |
202 | (cdr '(a b c)) | |
203 | @result{} (b c) | |
204 | @end group | |
205 | @group | |
206 | (cdr '()) | |
207 | @result{} nil | |
208 | @end group | |
209 | @end example | |
210 | @end defun | |
211 | ||
212 | @defun car-safe object | |
213 | This function lets you take the @sc{car} of a cons cell while avoiding | |
214 | errors for other data types. It returns the @sc{car} of @var{object} if | |
215 | @var{object} is a cons cell, @code{nil} otherwise. This is in contrast | |
216 | to @code{car}, which signals an error if @var{object} is not a list. | |
217 | ||
218 | @example | |
219 | @group | |
220 | (car-safe @var{object}) | |
221 | @equiv{} | |
222 | (let ((x @var{object})) | |
223 | (if (consp x) | |
224 | (car x) | |
225 | nil)) | |
226 | @end group | |
227 | @end example | |
228 | @end defun | |
229 | ||
230 | @defun cdr-safe object | |
231 | This function lets you take the @sc{cdr} of a cons cell while | |
232 | avoiding errors for other data types. It returns the @sc{cdr} of | |
233 | @var{object} if @var{object} is a cons cell, @code{nil} otherwise. | |
234 | This is in contrast to @code{cdr}, which signals an error if | |
235 | @var{object} is not a list. | |
236 | ||
237 | @example | |
238 | @group | |
239 | (cdr-safe @var{object}) | |
240 | @equiv{} | |
241 | (let ((x @var{object})) | |
242 | (if (consp x) | |
243 | (cdr x) | |
244 | nil)) | |
245 | @end group | |
246 | @end example | |
247 | @end defun | |
248 | ||
8241495d RS |
249 | @defmac pop listname |
250 | This macro is a way of examining the @sc{car} of a list, | |
aa9261ac | 251 | and taking it off the list, all at once. |
8241495d RS |
252 | |
253 | It operates on the list which is stored in the symbol @var{listname}. | |
254 | It removes this element from the list by setting @var{listname} | |
255 | to the @sc{cdr} of its old value---but it also returns the @sc{car} | |
256 | of that list, which is the element being removed. | |
257 | ||
258 | @example | |
259 | x | |
260 | @result{} (a b c) | |
261 | (pop x) | |
262 | @result{} a | |
263 | x | |
264 | @result{} (b c) | |
265 | @end example | |
266 | @end defmac | |
267 | ||
73804d4b | 268 | @defun nth n list |
7baeca0c | 269 | @anchor{Definition of nth} |
73804d4b RS |
270 | This function returns the @var{n}th element of @var{list}. Elements |
271 | are numbered starting with zero, so the @sc{car} of @var{list} is | |
272 | element number zero. If the length of @var{list} is @var{n} or less, | |
273 | the value is @code{nil}. | |
274 | ||
275 | If @var{n} is negative, @code{nth} returns the first element of | |
276 | @var{list}. | |
277 | ||
278 | @example | |
279 | @group | |
280 | (nth 2 '(1 2 3 4)) | |
281 | @result{} 3 | |
282 | @end group | |
283 | @group | |
284 | (nth 10 '(1 2 3 4)) | |
285 | @result{} nil | |
286 | @end group | |
287 | @group | |
288 | (nth -3 '(1 2 3 4)) | |
289 | @result{} 1 | |
290 | ||
291 | (nth n x) @equiv{} (car (nthcdr n x)) | |
292 | @end group | |
293 | @end example | |
969fe9b5 RS |
294 | |
295 | The function @code{elt} is similar, but applies to any kind of sequence. | |
296 | For historical reasons, it takes its arguments in the opposite order. | |
297 | @xref{Sequence Functions}. | |
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298 | @end defun |
299 | ||
300 | @defun nthcdr n list | |
301 | This function returns the @var{n}th @sc{cdr} of @var{list}. In other | |
f9f59935 | 302 | words, it skips past the first @var{n} links of @var{list} and returns |
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303 | what follows. |
304 | ||
305 | If @var{n} is zero or negative, @code{nthcdr} returns all of | |
306 | @var{list}. If the length of @var{list} is @var{n} or less, | |
307 | @code{nthcdr} returns @code{nil}. | |
308 | ||
309 | @example | |
310 | @group | |
311 | (nthcdr 1 '(1 2 3 4)) | |
312 | @result{} (2 3 4) | |
313 | @end group | |
314 | @group | |
315 | (nthcdr 10 '(1 2 3 4)) | |
316 | @result{} nil | |
317 | @end group | |
318 | @group | |
319 | (nthcdr -3 '(1 2 3 4)) | |
320 | @result{} (1 2 3 4) | |
321 | @end group | |
322 | @end example | |
323 | @end defun | |
324 | ||
dbda27d1 | 325 | @defun last list &optional n |
6fe50867 RS |
326 | This function returns the last link of @var{list}. The @code{car} of |
327 | this link is the list's last element. If @var{list} is null, | |
328 | @code{nil} is returned. If @var{n} is non-@code{nil}, the | |
329 | @var{n}th-to-last link is returned instead, or the whole of @var{list} | |
330 | if @var{n} is bigger than @var{list}'s length. | |
dbda27d1 DL |
331 | @end defun |
332 | ||
969fe9b5 | 333 | @defun safe-length list |
7baeca0c | 334 | @anchor{Definition of safe-length} |
d6702947 RS |
335 | This function returns the length of @var{list}, with no risk of either |
336 | an error or an infinite loop. It generally returns the number of | |
337 | distinct cons cells in the list. However, for circular lists, | |
338 | the value is just an upper bound; it is often too large. | |
f9f59935 | 339 | |
d6702947 RS |
340 | If @var{list} is not @code{nil} or a cons cell, @code{safe-length} |
341 | returns 0. | |
f9f59935 RS |
342 | @end defun |
343 | ||
969fe9b5 RS |
344 | The most common way to compute the length of a list, when you are not |
345 | worried that it may be circular, is with @code{length}. @xref{Sequence | |
346 | Functions}. | |
347 | ||
969fe9b5 RS |
348 | @defun caar cons-cell |
349 | This is the same as @code{(car (car @var{cons-cell}))}. | |
f9f59935 RS |
350 | @end defun |
351 | ||
969fe9b5 RS |
352 | @defun cadr cons-cell |
353 | This is the same as @code{(car (cdr @var{cons-cell}))} | |
354 | or @code{(nth 1 @var{cons-cell})}. | |
f9f59935 RS |
355 | @end defun |
356 | ||
969fe9b5 RS |
357 | @defun cdar cons-cell |
358 | This is the same as @code{(cdr (car @var{cons-cell}))}. | |
f9f59935 RS |
359 | @end defun |
360 | ||
969fe9b5 RS |
361 | @defun cddr cons-cell |
362 | This is the same as @code{(cdr (cdr @var{cons-cell}))} | |
363 | or @code{(nthcdr 2 @var{cons-cell})}. | |
f9f59935 RS |
364 | @end defun |
365 | ||
023045d6 DL |
366 | @defun butlast x &optional n |
367 | This function returns the list @var{x} with the last element, | |
368 | or the last @var{n} elements, removed. If @var{n} is greater | |
369 | than zero it makes a copy of the list so as not to damage the | |
370 | original list. In general, @code{(append (butlast @var{x} @var{n}) | |
371 | (last @var{x} @var{n}))} will return a list equal to @var{x}. | |
372 | @end defun | |
373 | ||
374 | @defun nbutlast x &optional n | |
375 | This is a version of @code{butlast} that works by destructively | |
376 | modifying the @code{cdr} of the appropriate element, rather than | |
377 | making a copy of the list. | |
378 | @end defun | |
379 | ||
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380 | @node Building Lists |
381 | @comment node-name, next, previous, up | |
382 | @section Building Cons Cells and Lists | |
383 | @cindex cons cells | |
384 | @cindex building lists | |
385 | ||
386 | Many functions build lists, as lists reside at the very heart of Lisp. | |
387 | @code{cons} is the fundamental list-building function; however, it is | |
388 | interesting to note that @code{list} is used more times in the source | |
389 | code for Emacs than @code{cons}. | |
390 | ||
391 | @defun cons object1 object2 | |
a2fdaa28 | 392 | This function is the most basic function for building new list |
73804d4b | 393 | structure. It creates a new cons cell, making @var{object1} the |
a2fdaa28 RS |
394 | @sc{car}, and @var{object2} the @sc{cdr}. It then returns the new |
395 | cons cell. The arguments @var{object1} and @var{object2} may be any | |
396 | Lisp objects, but most often @var{object2} is a list. | |
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397 | |
398 | @example | |
399 | @group | |
400 | (cons 1 '(2)) | |
401 | @result{} (1 2) | |
402 | @end group | |
403 | @group | |
404 | (cons 1 '()) | |
405 | @result{} (1) | |
406 | @end group | |
407 | @group | |
408 | (cons 1 2) | |
409 | @result{} (1 . 2) | |
410 | @end group | |
411 | @end example | |
412 | ||
413 | @cindex consing | |
414 | @code{cons} is often used to add a single element to the front of a | |
1e344ee2 SM |
415 | list. This is called @dfn{consing the element onto the list}. |
416 | @footnote{There is no strictly equivalent way to add an element to | |
417 | the end of a list. You can use @code{(append @var{listname} (list | |
418 | @var{newelt}))}, which creates a whole new list by copying @var{listname} | |
419 | and adding @var{newelt} to its end. Or you can use @code{(nconc | |
420 | @var{listname} (list @var{newelt}))}, which modifies @var{listname} | |
421 | by following all the @sc{cdr}s and then replacing the terminating | |
422 | @code{nil}. Compare this to adding an element to the beginning of a | |
423 | list with @code{cons}, which neither copies nor modifies the list.} | |
424 | For example: | |
73804d4b RS |
425 | |
426 | @example | |
427 | (setq list (cons newelt list)) | |
428 | @end example | |
429 | ||
430 | Note that there is no conflict between the variable named @code{list} | |
431 | used in this example and the function named @code{list} described below; | |
432 | any symbol can serve both purposes. | |
433 | @end defun | |
434 | ||
435 | @defun list &rest objects | |
436 | This function creates a list with @var{objects} as its elements. The | |
437 | resulting list is always @code{nil}-terminated. If no @var{objects} | |
438 | are given, the empty list is returned. | |
439 | ||
440 | @example | |
441 | @group | |
442 | (list 1 2 3 4 5) | |
443 | @result{} (1 2 3 4 5) | |
444 | @end group | |
445 | @group | |
446 | (list 1 2 '(3 4 5) 'foo) | |
447 | @result{} (1 2 (3 4 5) foo) | |
448 | @end group | |
449 | @group | |
450 | (list) | |
451 | @result{} nil | |
452 | @end group | |
453 | @end example | |
454 | @end defun | |
455 | ||
456 | @defun make-list length object | |
a9749dab RS |
457 | This function creates a list of @var{length} elements, in which each |
458 | element is @var{object}. Compare @code{make-list} with | |
459 | @code{make-string} (@pxref{Creating Strings}). | |
73804d4b RS |
460 | |
461 | @example | |
462 | @group | |
463 | (make-list 3 'pigs) | |
464 | @result{} (pigs pigs pigs) | |
465 | @end group | |
466 | @group | |
467 | (make-list 0 'pigs) | |
468 | @result{} nil | |
469 | @end group | |
a9749dab RS |
470 | @group |
471 | (setq l (make-list 3 '(a b)) | |
472 | @result{} ((a b) (a b) (a b)) | |
473 | (eq (car l) (cadr l)) | |
474 | @result{} t | |
475 | @end group | |
73804d4b RS |
476 | @end example |
477 | @end defun | |
478 | ||
479 | @defun append &rest sequences | |
480 | @cindex copying lists | |
481 | This function returns a list containing all the elements of | |
969fe9b5 RS |
482 | @var{sequences}. The @var{sequences} may be lists, vectors, |
483 | bool-vectors, or strings, but the last one should usually be a list. | |
484 | All arguments except the last one are copied, so none of the arguments | |
485 | is altered. (See @code{nconc} in @ref{Rearrangement}, for a way to join | |
486 | lists with no copying.) | |
2b3fc6c3 RS |
487 | |
488 | More generally, the final argument to @code{append} may be any Lisp | |
489 | object. The final argument is not copied or converted; it becomes the | |
490 | @sc{cdr} of the last cons cell in the new list. If the final argument | |
491 | is itself a list, then its elements become in effect elements of the | |
492 | result list. If the final element is not a list, the result is a | |
948caddf | 493 | dotted list since its final @sc{cdr} is not @code{nil} as required |
2b3fc6c3 | 494 | in a true list. |
73804d4b | 495 | |
19017752 LT |
496 | In Emacs 20 and before, the @code{append} function also allowed |
497 | integers as (non last) arguments. It converted them to strings of | |
498 | digits, making up the decimal print representation of the integer, and | |
499 | then used the strings instead of the original integers. This obsolete | |
500 | usage no longer works. The proper way to convert an integer to a | |
501 | decimal number in this way is with @code{format} (@pxref{Formatting | |
502 | Strings}) or @code{number-to-string} (@pxref{String Conversion}). | |
7dd3d99f RS |
503 | @end defun |
504 | ||
505 | Here is an example of using @code{append}: | |
73804d4b RS |
506 | |
507 | @example | |
508 | @group | |
509 | (setq trees '(pine oak)) | |
510 | @result{} (pine oak) | |
511 | (setq more-trees (append '(maple birch) trees)) | |
512 | @result{} (maple birch pine oak) | |
513 | @end group | |
514 | ||
515 | @group | |
516 | trees | |
517 | @result{} (pine oak) | |
518 | more-trees | |
519 | @result{} (maple birch pine oak) | |
520 | @end group | |
521 | @group | |
522 | (eq trees (cdr (cdr more-trees))) | |
523 | @result{} t | |
524 | @end group | |
525 | @end example | |
526 | ||
7dd3d99f | 527 | You can see how @code{append} works by looking at a box diagram. The |
2b3fc6c3 RS |
528 | variable @code{trees} is set to the list @code{(pine oak)} and then the |
529 | variable @code{more-trees} is set to the list @code{(maple birch pine | |
530 | oak)}. However, the variable @code{trees} continues to refer to the | |
531 | original list: | |
73804d4b RS |
532 | |
533 | @smallexample | |
534 | @group | |
535 | more-trees trees | |
536 | | | | |
969fe9b5 RS |
537 | | --- --- --- --- -> --- --- --- --- |
538 | --> | | |--> | | |--> | | |--> | | |--> nil | |
539 | --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- | |
73804d4b RS |
540 | | | | | |
541 | | | | | | |
542 | --> maple -->birch --> pine --> oak | |
543 | @end group | |
544 | @end smallexample | |
545 | ||
7dd3d99f | 546 | An empty sequence contributes nothing to the value returned by |
73804d4b | 547 | @code{append}. As a consequence of this, a final @code{nil} argument |
7dd3d99f | 548 | forces a copy of the previous argument: |
73804d4b RS |
549 | |
550 | @example | |
551 | @group | |
552 | trees | |
553 | @result{} (pine oak) | |
554 | @end group | |
555 | @group | |
969fe9b5 | 556 | (setq wood (append trees nil)) |
73804d4b RS |
557 | @result{} (pine oak) |
558 | @end group | |
559 | @group | |
560 | wood | |
561 | @result{} (pine oak) | |
562 | @end group | |
563 | @group | |
564 | (eq wood trees) | |
565 | @result{} nil | |
566 | @end group | |
567 | @end example | |
568 | ||
569 | @noindent | |
570 | This once was the usual way to copy a list, before the function | |
571 | @code{copy-sequence} was invented. @xref{Sequences Arrays Vectors}. | |
572 | ||
7dd3d99f | 573 | Here we show the use of vectors and strings as arguments to @code{append}: |
969fe9b5 RS |
574 | |
575 | @example | |
576 | @group | |
577 | (append [a b] "cd" nil) | |
578 | @result{} (a b 99 100) | |
579 | @end group | |
580 | @end example | |
581 | ||
7dd3d99f | 582 | With the help of @code{apply} (@pxref{Calling Functions}), we can append |
a9f0a989 | 583 | all the lists in a list of lists: |
73804d4b RS |
584 | |
585 | @example | |
586 | @group | |
587 | (apply 'append '((a b c) nil (x y z) nil)) | |
588 | @result{} (a b c x y z) | |
589 | @end group | |
590 | @end example | |
591 | ||
7dd3d99f | 592 | If no @var{sequences} are given, @code{nil} is returned: |
73804d4b RS |
593 | |
594 | @example | |
595 | @group | |
596 | (append) | |
597 | @result{} nil | |
598 | @end group | |
599 | @end example | |
600 | ||
7dd3d99f | 601 | Here are some examples where the final argument is not a list: |
2b3fc6c3 RS |
602 | |
603 | @example | |
604 | (append '(x y) 'z) | |
bfe721d1 | 605 | @result{} (x y . z) |
2b3fc6c3 | 606 | (append '(x y) [z]) |
bfe721d1 | 607 | @result{} (x y . [z]) |
2b3fc6c3 RS |
608 | @end example |
609 | ||
610 | @noindent | |
611 | The second example shows that when the final argument is a sequence but | |
612 | not a list, the sequence's elements do not become elements of the | |
613 | resulting list. Instead, the sequence becomes the final @sc{cdr}, like | |
614 | any other non-list final argument. | |
73804d4b | 615 | |
73804d4b RS |
616 | @defun reverse list |
617 | This function creates a new list whose elements are the elements of | |
618 | @var{list}, but in reverse order. The original argument @var{list} is | |
619 | @emph{not} altered. | |
620 | ||
621 | @example | |
622 | @group | |
623 | (setq x '(1 2 3 4)) | |
624 | @result{} (1 2 3 4) | |
625 | @end group | |
626 | @group | |
627 | (reverse x) | |
628 | @result{} (4 3 2 1) | |
629 | x | |
630 | @result{} (1 2 3 4) | |
631 | @end group | |
632 | @end example | |
633 | @end defun | |
634 | ||
84c3f248 | 635 | @defun copy-tree tree &optional vecp |
948caddf | 636 | This function returns a copy of the tree @code{tree}. If @var{tree} is a |
84c3f248 RS |
637 | cons cell, this makes a new cons cell with the same @sc{car} and |
638 | @sc{cdr}, then recursively copies the @sc{car} and @sc{cdr} in the | |
639 | same way. | |
640 | ||
641 | Normally, when @var{tree} is anything other than a cons cell, | |
642 | @code{copy-tree} simply returns @var{tree}. However, if @var{vecp} is | |
643 | non-@code{nil}, it copies vectors too (and operates recursively on | |
644 | their elements). | |
645 | @end defun | |
646 | ||
19017752 LT |
647 | @defun number-sequence from &optional to separation |
648 | This returns a list of numbers starting with @var{from} and | |
649 | incrementing by @var{separation}, and ending at or just before | |
650 | @var{to}. @var{separation} can be positive or negative and defaults | |
651 | to 1. If @var{to} is @code{nil} or numerically equal to @var{from}, | |
23e69ab1 RS |
652 | the value is the one-element list @code{(@var{from})}. If @var{to} is |
653 | less than @var{from} with a positive @var{separation}, or greater than | |
654 | @var{from} with a negative @var{separation}, the value is @code{nil} | |
655 | because those arguments specify an empty sequence. | |
656 | ||
657 | If @var{separation} is 0 and @var{to} is neither @code{nil} nor | |
658 | numerically equal to @var{from}, @code{number-sequence} signals an | |
659 | error, since those arguments specify an infinite sequence. | |
19017752 LT |
660 | |
661 | All arguments can be integers or floating point numbers. However, | |
662 | floating point arguments can be tricky, because floating point | |
663 | arithmetic is inexact. For instance, depending on the machine, it may | |
664 | quite well happen that @code{(number-sequence 0.4 0.6 0.2)} returns | |
948caddf | 665 | the one element list @code{(0.4)}, whereas |
19017752 LT |
666 | @code{(number-sequence 0.4 0.8 0.2)} returns a list with three |
667 | elements. The @var{n}th element of the list is computed by the exact | |
668 | formula @code{(+ @var{from} (* @var{n} @var{separation}))}. Thus, if | |
669 | one wants to make sure that @var{to} is included in the list, one can | |
670 | pass an expression of this exact type for @var{to}. Alternatively, | |
671 | one can replace @var{to} with a slightly larger value (or a slightly | |
672 | more negative value if @var{separation} is negative). | |
673 | ||
674 | Some examples: | |
1006f206 RS |
675 | |
676 | @example | |
677 | (number-sequence 4 9) | |
678 | @result{} (4 5 6 7 8 9) | |
19017752 LT |
679 | (number-sequence 9 4 -1) |
680 | @result{} (9 8 7 6 5 4) | |
681 | (number-sequence 9 4 -2) | |
682 | @result{} (9 7 5) | |
683 | (number-sequence 8) | |
684 | @result{} (8) | |
685 | (number-sequence 8 5) | |
686 | @result{} nil | |
687 | (number-sequence 5 8 -1) | |
688 | @result{} nil | |
1006f206 RS |
689 | (number-sequence 1.5 6 2) |
690 | @result{} (1.5 3.5 5.5) | |
691 | @end example | |
692 | @end defun | |
693 | ||
39872724 RS |
694 | @node List Variables |
695 | @section Modifying List Variables | |
696 | ||
697 | These functions, and one macro, provide convenient ways | |
698 | to modify a list which is stored in a variable. | |
699 | ||
700 | @defmac push newelt listname | |
701 | This macro provides an alternative way to write | |
702 | @code{(setq @var{listname} (cons @var{newelt} @var{listname}))}. | |
703 | ||
704 | @example | |
705 | (setq l '(a b)) | |
706 | @result{} (a b) | |
707 | (push 'c l) | |
708 | @result{} (c a b) | |
709 | l | |
710 | @result{} (c a b) | |
711 | @end example | |
712 | @end defmac | |
713 | ||
714 | Two functions modify lists that are the values of variables. | |
715 | ||
716 | @defun add-to-list symbol element &optional append | |
717 | This function sets the variable @var{symbol} by consing @var{element} | |
718 | onto the old value, if @var{element} is not already a member of that | |
719 | value. It returns the resulting list, whether updated or not. The | |
720 | value of @var{symbol} had better be a list already before the call. | |
721 | Membership is tested using @code{equal}. | |
722 | ||
723 | Normally, if @var{element} is added, it is added to the front of | |
724 | @var{symbol}, but if the optional argument @var{append} is | |
725 | non-@code{nil}, it is added at the end. | |
726 | ||
727 | The argument @var{symbol} is not implicitly quoted; @code{add-to-list} | |
728 | is an ordinary function, like @code{set} and unlike @code{setq}. Quote | |
729 | the argument yourself if that is what you want. | |
730 | @end defun | |
731 | ||
732 | Here's a scenario showing how to use @code{add-to-list}: | |
733 | ||
734 | @example | |
735 | (setq foo '(a b)) | |
736 | @result{} (a b) | |
737 | ||
738 | (add-to-list 'foo 'c) ;; @r{Add @code{c}.} | |
739 | @result{} (c a b) | |
740 | ||
741 | (add-to-list 'foo 'b) ;; @r{No effect.} | |
742 | @result{} (c a b) | |
743 | ||
744 | foo ;; @r{@code{foo} was changed.} | |
745 | @result{} (c a b) | |
746 | @end example | |
747 | ||
748 | An equivalent expression for @code{(add-to-list '@var{var} | |
749 | @var{value})} is this: | |
750 | ||
751 | @example | |
752 | (or (member @var{value} @var{var}) | |
753 | (setq @var{var} (cons @var{value} @var{var}))) | |
754 | @end example | |
755 | ||
756 | @defun add-to-ordered-list symbol element &optional order | |
757 | This function sets the variable @var{symbol} by inserting | |
758 | @var{element} into the old value, which must be a list, at the | |
759 | position specified by @var{order}. If @var{element} is already a | |
760 | member of the list, its position in the list is adjusted according | |
761 | to @var{order}. Membership is tested using @code{eq}. | |
762 | This function returns the resulting list, whether updated or not. | |
763 | ||
764 | The @var{order} is typically a number (integer or float), and the | |
765 | elements of the list are sorted in non-decreasing numerical order. | |
766 | ||
767 | @var{order} may also be omitted or @code{nil}. Then the numeric order | |
768 | of @var{element} stays unchanged if it already has one; otherwise, | |
769 | @var{element} has no numeric order. Elements without a numeric list | |
770 | order are placed at the end of the list, in no particular order. | |
771 | ||
772 | Any other value for @var{order} removes the numeric order of @var{element} | |
773 | if it already has one; otherwise, it is equivalent to @code{nil}. | |
774 | ||
775 | The argument @var{symbol} is not implicitly quoted; | |
776 | @code{add-to-ordered-list} is an ordinary function, like @code{set} | |
777 | and unlike @code{setq}. Quote the argument yourself if that is what | |
778 | you want. | |
779 | ||
780 | The ordering information is stored in a hash table on @var{symbol}'s | |
781 | @code{list-order} property. | |
782 | @end defun | |
783 | ||
784 | Here's a scenario showing how to use @code{add-to-ordered-list}: | |
785 | ||
786 | @example | |
787 | (setq foo '()) | |
788 | @result{} nil | |
789 | ||
790 | (add-to-ordered-list 'foo 'a 1) ;; @r{Add @code{a}.} | |
791 | @result{} (a) | |
792 | ||
793 | (add-to-ordered-list 'foo 'c 3) ;; @r{Add @code{c}.} | |
794 | @result{} (a c) | |
795 | ||
796 | (add-to-ordered-list 'foo 'b 2) ;; @r{Add @code{b}.} | |
797 | @result{} (a b c) | |
798 | ||
799 | (add-to-ordered-list 'foo 'b 4) ;; @r{Move @code{b}.} | |
800 | @result{} (a c b) | |
801 | ||
802 | (add-to-ordered-list 'foo 'd) ;; @r{Append @code{d}.} | |
803 | @result{} (a c b d) | |
804 | ||
805 | (add-to-ordered-list 'foo 'e) ;; @r{Add @code{e}}. | |
806 | @result{} (a c b e d) | |
807 | ||
808 | foo ;; @r{@code{foo} was changed.} | |
809 | @result{} (a c b e d) | |
810 | @end example | |
811 | ||
73804d4b RS |
812 | @node Modifying Lists |
813 | @section Modifying Existing List Structure | |
f1e2c45e | 814 | @cindex destructive list operations |
73804d4b RS |
815 | |
816 | You can modify the @sc{car} and @sc{cdr} contents of a cons cell with the | |
177c0ea7 | 817 | primitives @code{setcar} and @code{setcdr}. We call these ``destructive'' |
f1e2c45e | 818 | operations because they change existing list structure. |
73804d4b | 819 | |
0ff13af9 | 820 | @cindex CL note---@code{rplaca} vs @code{setcar} |
73804d4b RS |
821 | @quotation |
822 | @findex rplaca | |
823 | @findex rplacd | |
824 | @b{Common Lisp note:} Common Lisp uses functions @code{rplaca} and | |
825 | @code{rplacd} to alter list structure; they change structure the same | |
826 | way as @code{setcar} and @code{setcdr}, but the Common Lisp functions | |
827 | return the cons cell while @code{setcar} and @code{setcdr} return the | |
828 | new @sc{car} or @sc{cdr}. | |
829 | @end quotation | |
830 | ||
831 | @menu | |
832 | * Setcar:: Replacing an element in a list. | |
833 | * Setcdr:: Replacing part of the list backbone. | |
834 | This can be used to remove or add elements. | |
835 | * Rearrangement:: Reordering the elements in a list; combining lists. | |
836 | @end menu | |
837 | ||
838 | @node Setcar | |
839 | @subsection Altering List Elements with @code{setcar} | |
840 | ||
2b3fc6c3 RS |
841 | Changing the @sc{car} of a cons cell is done with @code{setcar}. When |
842 | used on a list, @code{setcar} replaces one element of a list with a | |
843 | different element. | |
73804d4b RS |
844 | |
845 | @defun setcar cons object | |
846 | This function stores @var{object} as the new @sc{car} of @var{cons}, | |
74490e55 | 847 | replacing its previous @sc{car}. In other words, it changes the |
b6954afd | 848 | @sc{car} slot of @var{cons} to refer to @var{object}. It returns the |
74490e55 | 849 | value @var{object}. For example: |
73804d4b RS |
850 | |
851 | @example | |
852 | @group | |
853 | (setq x '(1 2)) | |
854 | @result{} (1 2) | |
855 | @end group | |
856 | @group | |
857 | (setcar x 4) | |
858 | @result{} 4 | |
859 | @end group | |
860 | @group | |
861 | x | |
862 | @result{} (4 2) | |
863 | @end group | |
864 | @end example | |
865 | @end defun | |
866 | ||
867 | When a cons cell is part of the shared structure of several lists, | |
868 | storing a new @sc{car} into the cons changes one element of each of | |
869 | these lists. Here is an example: | |
870 | ||
871 | @example | |
872 | @group | |
873 | ;; @r{Create two lists that are partly shared.} | |
874 | (setq x1 '(a b c)) | |
875 | @result{} (a b c) | |
876 | (setq x2 (cons 'z (cdr x1))) | |
877 | @result{} (z b c) | |
878 | @end group | |
879 | ||
880 | @group | |
881 | ;; @r{Replace the @sc{car} of a shared link.} | |
882 | (setcar (cdr x1) 'foo) | |
883 | @result{} foo | |
884 | x1 ; @r{Both lists are changed.} | |
885 | @result{} (a foo c) | |
886 | x2 | |
887 | @result{} (z foo c) | |
888 | @end group | |
889 | ||
890 | @group | |
891 | ;; @r{Replace the @sc{car} of a link that is not shared.} | |
892 | (setcar x1 'baz) | |
893 | @result{} baz | |
894 | x1 ; @r{Only one list is changed.} | |
895 | @result{} (baz foo c) | |
896 | x2 | |
897 | @result{} (z foo c) | |
898 | @end group | |
899 | @end example | |
900 | ||
901 | Here is a graphical depiction of the shared structure of the two lists | |
902 | in the variables @code{x1} and @code{x2}, showing why replacing @code{b} | |
903 | changes them both: | |
904 | ||
905 | @example | |
906 | @group | |
969fe9b5 RS |
907 | --- --- --- --- --- --- |
908 | x1---> | | |----> | | |--> | | |--> nil | |
909 | --- --- --- --- --- --- | |
73804d4b RS |
910 | | --> | | |
911 | | | | | | |
912 | --> a | --> b --> c | |
913 | | | |
969fe9b5 RS |
914 | --- --- | |
915 | x2--> | | |-- | |
916 | --- --- | |
73804d4b RS |
917 | | |
918 | | | |
919 | --> z | |
920 | @end group | |
921 | @end example | |
922 | ||
923 | Here is an alternative form of box diagram, showing the same relationship: | |
924 | ||
925 | @example | |
926 | @group | |
927 | x1: | |
928 | -------------- -------------- -------------- | |
929 | | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | |
930 | | a | o------->| b | o------->| c | nil | | |
931 | | | | -->| | | | | | | |
932 | -------------- | -------------- -------------- | |
933 | | | |
934 | x2: | | |
935 | -------------- | | |
936 | | car | cdr | | | |
937 | | z | o---- | |
938 | | | | | |
939 | -------------- | |
940 | @end group | |
941 | @end example | |
942 | ||
943 | @node Setcdr | |
944 | @subsection Altering the CDR of a List | |
945 | ||
946 | The lowest-level primitive for modifying a @sc{cdr} is @code{setcdr}: | |
947 | ||
948 | @defun setcdr cons object | |
2b3fc6c3 | 949 | This function stores @var{object} as the new @sc{cdr} of @var{cons}, |
74490e55 | 950 | replacing its previous @sc{cdr}. In other words, it changes the |
b6954afd | 951 | @sc{cdr} slot of @var{cons} to refer to @var{object}. It returns the |
74490e55 | 952 | value @var{object}. |
73804d4b RS |
953 | @end defun |
954 | ||
955 | Here is an example of replacing the @sc{cdr} of a list with a | |
956 | different list. All but the first element of the list are removed in | |
957 | favor of a different sequence of elements. The first element is | |
958 | unchanged, because it resides in the @sc{car} of the list, and is not | |
959 | reached via the @sc{cdr}. | |
960 | ||
961 | @example | |
962 | @group | |
963 | (setq x '(1 2 3)) | |
964 | @result{} (1 2 3) | |
965 | @end group | |
966 | @group | |
967 | (setcdr x '(4)) | |
968 | @result{} (4) | |
969 | @end group | |
970 | @group | |
971 | x | |
972 | @result{} (1 4) | |
973 | @end group | |
974 | @end example | |
975 | ||
976 | You can delete elements from the middle of a list by altering the | |
977 | @sc{cdr}s of the cons cells in the list. For example, here we delete | |
978 | the second element, @code{b}, from the list @code{(a b c)}, by changing | |
74490e55 | 979 | the @sc{cdr} of the first cons cell: |
73804d4b RS |
980 | |
981 | @example | |
982 | @group | |
983 | (setq x1 '(a b c)) | |
984 | @result{} (a b c) | |
985 | (setcdr x1 (cdr (cdr x1))) | |
986 | @result{} (c) | |
987 | x1 | |
988 | @result{} (a c) | |
989 | @end group | |
990 | @end example | |
991 | ||
bda144f4 | 992 | @need 4000 |
73804d4b RS |
993 | Here is the result in box notation: |
994 | ||
995 | @example | |
996 | @group | |
997 | -------------------- | |
998 | | | | |
999 | -------------- | -------------- | -------------- | |
1000 | | car | cdr | | | car | cdr | -->| car | cdr | | |
1001 | | a | o----- | b | o-------->| c | nil | | |
1002 | | | | | | | | | | | |
1003 | -------------- -------------- -------------- | |
1004 | @end group | |
1005 | @end example | |
1006 | ||
1007 | @noindent | |
1008 | The second cons cell, which previously held the element @code{b}, still | |
1009 | exists and its @sc{car} is still @code{b}, but it no longer forms part | |
1010 | of this list. | |
1011 | ||
1012 | It is equally easy to insert a new element by changing @sc{cdr}s: | |
1013 | ||
1014 | @example | |
1015 | @group | |
1016 | (setq x1 '(a b c)) | |
1017 | @result{} (a b c) | |
1018 | (setcdr x1 (cons 'd (cdr x1))) | |
1019 | @result{} (d b c) | |
1020 | x1 | |
1021 | @result{} (a d b c) | |
1022 | @end group | |
1023 | @end example | |
1024 | ||
1025 | Here is this result in box notation: | |
1026 | ||
1027 | @smallexample | |
1028 | @group | |
1029 | -------------- ------------- ------------- | |
1030 | | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | |
1031 | | a | o | -->| b | o------->| c | nil | | |
1032 | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
1033 | --------- | -- | ------------- ------------- | |
1034 | | | | |
1035 | ----- -------- | |
1036 | | | | |
1037 | | --------------- | | |
1038 | | | car | cdr | | | |
1039 | -->| d | o------ | |
1040 | | | | | |
1041 | --------------- | |
1042 | @end group | |
1043 | @end smallexample | |
1044 | ||
1045 | @node Rearrangement | |
1046 | @subsection Functions that Rearrange Lists | |
1047 | @cindex rearrangement of lists | |
1048 | @cindex modification of lists | |
1049 | ||
1050 | Here are some functions that rearrange lists ``destructively'' by | |
1051 | modifying the @sc{cdr}s of their component cons cells. We call these | |
1052 | functions ``destructive'' because they chew up the original lists passed | |
f1e2c45e RS |
1053 | to them as arguments, relinking their cons cells to form a new list that |
1054 | is the returned value. | |
73804d4b | 1055 | |
37680279 | 1056 | @ifnottex |
2b3fc6c3 RS |
1057 | See @code{delq}, in @ref{Sets And Lists}, for another function |
1058 | that modifies cons cells. | |
37680279 | 1059 | @end ifnottex |
2b3fc6c3 RS |
1060 | @iftex |
1061 | The function @code{delq} in the following section is another example | |
1062 | of destructive list manipulation. | |
1063 | @end iftex | |
1064 | ||
73804d4b RS |
1065 | @defun nconc &rest lists |
1066 | @cindex concatenating lists | |
1067 | @cindex joining lists | |
1068 | This function returns a list containing all the elements of @var{lists}. | |
1069 | Unlike @code{append} (@pxref{Building Lists}), the @var{lists} are | |
1070 | @emph{not} copied. Instead, the last @sc{cdr} of each of the | |
1071 | @var{lists} is changed to refer to the following list. The last of the | |
1072 | @var{lists} is not altered. For example: | |
1073 | ||
1074 | @example | |
1075 | @group | |
1076 | (setq x '(1 2 3)) | |
1077 | @result{} (1 2 3) | |
1078 | @end group | |
1079 | @group | |
1080 | (nconc x '(4 5)) | |
1081 | @result{} (1 2 3 4 5) | |
1082 | @end group | |
1083 | @group | |
1084 | x | |
1085 | @result{} (1 2 3 4 5) | |
1086 | @end group | |
1087 | @end example | |
1088 | ||
1089 | Since the last argument of @code{nconc} is not itself modified, it is | |
1090 | reasonable to use a constant list, such as @code{'(4 5)}, as in the | |
1091 | above example. For the same reason, the last argument need not be a | |
1092 | list: | |
1093 | ||
1094 | @example | |
1095 | @group | |
1096 | (setq x '(1 2 3)) | |
1097 | @result{} (1 2 3) | |
1098 | @end group | |
1099 | @group | |
1100 | (nconc x 'z) | |
1101 | @result{} (1 2 3 . z) | |
1102 | @end group | |
1103 | @group | |
1104 | x | |
1105 | @result{} (1 2 3 . z) | |
1106 | @end group | |
1107 | @end example | |
1108 | ||
969fe9b5 RS |
1109 | However, the other arguments (all but the last) must be lists. |
1110 | ||
73804d4b RS |
1111 | A common pitfall is to use a quoted constant list as a non-last |
1112 | argument to @code{nconc}. If you do this, your program will change | |
1113 | each time you run it! Here is what happens: | |
1114 | ||
1115 | @smallexample | |
1116 | @group | |
1117 | (defun add-foo (x) ; @r{We want this function to add} | |
1118 | (nconc '(foo) x)) ; @r{@code{foo} to the front of its arg.} | |
1119 | @end group | |
1120 | ||
1121 | @group | |
1122 | (symbol-function 'add-foo) | |
1123 | @result{} (lambda (x) (nconc (quote (foo)) x)) | |
1124 | @end group | |
1125 | ||
1126 | @group | |
1127 | (setq xx (add-foo '(1 2))) ; @r{It seems to work.} | |
1128 | @result{} (foo 1 2) | |
1129 | @end group | |
1130 | @group | |
1131 | (setq xy (add-foo '(3 4))) ; @r{What happened?} | |
1132 | @result{} (foo 1 2 3 4) | |
1133 | @end group | |
1134 | @group | |
1135 | (eq xx xy) | |
1136 | @result{} t | |
1137 | @end group | |
1138 | ||
1139 | @group | |
1140 | (symbol-function 'add-foo) | |
1141 | @result{} (lambda (x) (nconc (quote (foo 1 2 3 4) x))) | |
1142 | @end group | |
1143 | @end smallexample | |
1144 | @end defun | |
1145 | ||
1146 | @defun nreverse list | |
1147 | @cindex reversing a list | |
1148 | This function reverses the order of the elements of @var{list}. | |
2b3fc6c3 RS |
1149 | Unlike @code{reverse}, @code{nreverse} alters its argument by reversing |
1150 | the @sc{cdr}s in the cons cells forming the list. The cons cell that | |
74490e55 | 1151 | used to be the last one in @var{list} becomes the first cons cell of the |
2b3fc6c3 | 1152 | value. |
73804d4b RS |
1153 | |
1154 | For example: | |
1155 | ||
1156 | @example | |
1157 | @group | |
a9749dab RS |
1158 | (setq x '(a b c)) |
1159 | @result{} (a b c) | |
73804d4b RS |
1160 | @end group |
1161 | @group | |
1162 | x | |
a9749dab | 1163 | @result{} (a b c) |
73804d4b | 1164 | (nreverse x) |
a9749dab | 1165 | @result{} (c b a) |
73804d4b RS |
1166 | @end group |
1167 | @group | |
74490e55 | 1168 | ;; @r{The cons cell that was first is now last.} |
73804d4b | 1169 | x |
a9749dab | 1170 | @result{} (a) |
73804d4b RS |
1171 | @end group |
1172 | @end example | |
1173 | ||
1174 | To avoid confusion, we usually store the result of @code{nreverse} | |
1175 | back in the same variable which held the original list: | |
1176 | ||
1177 | @example | |
1178 | (setq x (nreverse x)) | |
1179 | @end example | |
1180 | ||
1181 | Here is the @code{nreverse} of our favorite example, @code{(a b c)}, | |
1182 | presented graphically: | |
1183 | ||
1184 | @smallexample | |
1185 | @group | |
1186 | @r{Original list head:} @r{Reversed list:} | |
1187 | ------------- ------------- ------------ | |
1188 | | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | |
1189 | | a | nil |<-- | b | o |<-- | c | o | | |
1190 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
1191 | ------------- | --------- | - | -------- | - | |
1192 | | | | | | |
1193 | ------------- ------------ | |
1194 | @end group | |
1195 | @end smallexample | |
1196 | @end defun | |
1197 | ||
1198 | @defun sort list predicate | |
1199 | @cindex stable sort | |
1200 | @cindex sorting lists | |
1201 | This function sorts @var{list} stably, though destructively, and | |
1202 | returns the sorted list. It compares elements using @var{predicate}. A | |
1203 | stable sort is one in which elements with equal sort keys maintain their | |
1204 | relative order before and after the sort. Stability is important when | |
1205 | successive sorts are used to order elements according to different | |
1206 | criteria. | |
1207 | ||
1208 | The argument @var{predicate} must be a function that accepts two | |
1209 | arguments. It is called with two elements of @var{list}. To get an | |
c72c5004 | 1210 | increasing order sort, the @var{predicate} should return non-@code{nil} if the |
73804d4b RS |
1211 | first element is ``less than'' the second, or @code{nil} if not. |
1212 | ||
a9f0a989 RS |
1213 | The comparison function @var{predicate} must give reliable results for |
1214 | any given pair of arguments, at least within a single call to | |
1215 | @code{sort}. It must be @dfn{antisymmetric}; that is, if @var{a} is | |
1216 | less than @var{b}, @var{b} must not be less than @var{a}. It must be | |
1217 | @dfn{transitive}---that is, if @var{a} is less than @var{b}, and @var{b} | |
1218 | is less than @var{c}, then @var{a} must be less than @var{c}. If you | |
1219 | use a comparison function which does not meet these requirements, the | |
1220 | result of @code{sort} is unpredictable. | |
1221 | ||
73804d4b RS |
1222 | The destructive aspect of @code{sort} is that it rearranges the cons |
1223 | cells forming @var{list} by changing @sc{cdr}s. A nondestructive sort | |
1224 | function would create new cons cells to store the elements in their | |
1225 | sorted order. If you wish to make a sorted copy without destroying the | |
1226 | original, copy it first with @code{copy-sequence} and then sort. | |
1227 | ||
1228 | Sorting does not change the @sc{car}s of the cons cells in @var{list}; | |
1229 | the cons cell that originally contained the element @code{a} in | |
1230 | @var{list} still has @code{a} in its @sc{car} after sorting, but it now | |
1231 | appears in a different position in the list due to the change of | |
1232 | @sc{cdr}s. For example: | |
1233 | ||
1234 | @example | |
1235 | @group | |
1236 | (setq nums '(1 3 2 6 5 4 0)) | |
1237 | @result{} (1 3 2 6 5 4 0) | |
1238 | @end group | |
1239 | @group | |
1240 | (sort nums '<) | |
1241 | @result{} (0 1 2 3 4 5 6) | |
1242 | @end group | |
1243 | @group | |
1244 | nums | |
1245 | @result{} (1 2 3 4 5 6) | |
1246 | @end group | |
1247 | @end example | |
1248 | ||
1249 | @noindent | |
f9f59935 RS |
1250 | @strong{Warning}: Note that the list in @code{nums} no longer contains |
1251 | 0; this is the same cons cell that it was before, but it is no longer | |
1252 | the first one in the list. Don't assume a variable that formerly held | |
1253 | the argument now holds the entire sorted list! Instead, save the result | |
1254 | of @code{sort} and use that. Most often we store the result back into | |
1255 | the variable that held the original list: | |
73804d4b RS |
1256 | |
1257 | @example | |
1258 | (setq nums (sort nums '<)) | |
1259 | @end example | |
1260 | ||
1261 | @xref{Sorting}, for more functions that perform sorting. | |
1262 | See @code{documentation} in @ref{Accessing Documentation}, for a | |
1263 | useful example of @code{sort}. | |
1264 | @end defun | |
1265 | ||
73804d4b RS |
1266 | @node Sets And Lists |
1267 | @section Using Lists as Sets | |
1268 | @cindex lists as sets | |
1269 | @cindex sets | |
1270 | ||
1271 | A list can represent an unordered mathematical set---simply consider a | |
1272 | value an element of a set if it appears in the list, and ignore the | |
1273 | order of the list. To form the union of two sets, use @code{append} (as | |
42101e87 LT |
1274 | long as you don't mind having duplicate elements). You can remove |
1275 | @code{equal} duplicates using @code{delete-dups}. Other useful | |
73804d4b RS |
1276 | functions for sets include @code{memq} and @code{delq}, and their |
1277 | @code{equal} versions, @code{member} and @code{delete}. | |
1278 | ||
b5ef0e92 | 1279 | @cindex CL note---lack @code{union}, @code{intersection} |
73804d4b RS |
1280 | @quotation |
1281 | @b{Common Lisp note:} Common Lisp has functions @code{union} (which | |
1282 | avoids duplicate elements) and @code{intersection} for set operations, | |
1283 | but GNU Emacs Lisp does not have them. You can write them in Lisp if | |
1284 | you wish. | |
1285 | @end quotation | |
1286 | ||
1287 | @defun memq object list | |
1288 | @cindex membership in a list | |
1289 | This function tests to see whether @var{object} is a member of | |
1290 | @var{list}. If it is, @code{memq} returns a list starting with the | |
1291 | first occurrence of @var{object}. Otherwise, it returns @code{nil}. | |
1292 | The letter @samp{q} in @code{memq} says that it uses @code{eq} to | |
1293 | compare @var{object} against the elements of the list. For example: | |
1294 | ||
1295 | @example | |
1296 | @group | |
2b3fc6c3 RS |
1297 | (memq 'b '(a b c b a)) |
1298 | @result{} (b c b a) | |
73804d4b RS |
1299 | @end group |
1300 | @group | |
1301 | (memq '(2) '((1) (2))) ; @r{@code{(2)} and @code{(2)} are not @code{eq}.} | |
1302 | @result{} nil | |
1303 | @end group | |
1304 | @end example | |
1305 | @end defun | |
1306 | ||
1307 | @defun delq object list | |
1308 | @cindex deletion of elements | |
1309 | This function destructively removes all elements @code{eq} to | |
1310 | @var{object} from @var{list}. The letter @samp{q} in @code{delq} says | |
1311 | that it uses @code{eq} to compare @var{object} against the elements of | |
f68446ef | 1312 | the list, like @code{memq} and @code{remq}. |
73804d4b RS |
1313 | @end defun |
1314 | ||
1315 | When @code{delq} deletes elements from the front of the list, it does so | |
1316 | simply by advancing down the list and returning a sublist that starts | |
1317 | after those elements: | |
1318 | ||
1319 | @example | |
1320 | @group | |
1321 | (delq 'a '(a b c)) @equiv{} (cdr '(a b c)) | |
1322 | @end group | |
1323 | @end example | |
1324 | ||
1325 | When an element to be deleted appears in the middle of the list, | |
1326 | removing it involves changing the @sc{cdr}s (@pxref{Setcdr}). | |
1327 | ||
1328 | @example | |
1329 | @group | |
2b3fc6c3 RS |
1330 | (setq sample-list '(a b c (4))) |
1331 | @result{} (a b c (4)) | |
73804d4b RS |
1332 | @end group |
1333 | @group | |
2b3fc6c3 RS |
1334 | (delq 'a sample-list) |
1335 | @result{} (b c (4)) | |
73804d4b RS |
1336 | @end group |
1337 | @group | |
1338 | sample-list | |
2b3fc6c3 | 1339 | @result{} (a b c (4)) |
73804d4b RS |
1340 | @end group |
1341 | @group | |
2b3fc6c3 | 1342 | (delq 'c sample-list) |
34e1af81 | 1343 | @result{} (a b (4)) |
73804d4b RS |
1344 | @end group |
1345 | @group | |
1346 | sample-list | |
34e1af81 | 1347 | @result{} (a b (4)) |
73804d4b RS |
1348 | @end group |
1349 | @end example | |
1350 | ||
bfe721d1 KH |
1351 | Note that @code{(delq 'c sample-list)} modifies @code{sample-list} to |
1352 | splice out the third element, but @code{(delq 'a sample-list)} does not | |
73804d4b RS |
1353 | splice anything---it just returns a shorter list. Don't assume that a |
1354 | variable which formerly held the argument @var{list} now has fewer | |
1355 | elements, or that it still holds the original list! Instead, save the | |
1356 | result of @code{delq} and use that. Most often we store the result back | |
1357 | into the variable that held the original list: | |
1358 | ||
1359 | @example | |
1360 | (setq flowers (delq 'rose flowers)) | |
1361 | @end example | |
1362 | ||
1363 | In the following example, the @code{(4)} that @code{delq} attempts to match | |
1364 | and the @code{(4)} in the @code{sample-list} are not @code{eq}: | |
1365 | ||
1366 | @example | |
1367 | @group | |
1368 | (delq '(4) sample-list) | |
2b3fc6c3 | 1369 | @result{} (a c (4)) |
73804d4b RS |
1370 | @end group |
1371 | @end example | |
1372 | ||
9f081286 RS |
1373 | @defun remq object list |
1374 | This function returns a copy of @var{list}, with all elements removed | |
1375 | which are @code{eq} to @var{object}. The letter @samp{q} in @code{remq} | |
1376 | says that it uses @code{eq} to compare @var{object} against the elements | |
1377 | of @code{list}. | |
1378 | ||
1379 | @example | |
1380 | @group | |
1381 | (setq sample-list '(a b c a b c)) | |
1382 | @result{} (a b c a b c) | |
1383 | @end group | |
1384 | @group | |
1385 | (remq 'a sample-list) | |
1386 | @result{} (b c b c) | |
1387 | @end group | |
1388 | @group | |
1389 | sample-list | |
1390 | @result{} (a b c a b c) | |
1391 | @end group | |
1392 | @end example | |
1393 | @noindent | |
1394 | The function @code{delq} offers a way to perform this operation | |
1395 | destructively. See @ref{Sets And Lists}. | |
1396 | @end defun | |
1397 | ||
1334cc0c KS |
1398 | @defun memql object list |
1399 | The function @code{member} tests to see whether @var{object} is a member | |
1400 | of @var{list}, comparing members with @var{object} using @code{eql}, | |
1401 | so floating point elements are compared by value. | |
1402 | If @var{object} is a member, @code{memql} returns a list starting with | |
1403 | its first occurrence in @var{list}. Otherwise, it returns @code{nil}. | |
1404 | ||
1405 | Compare this with @code{memq}: | |
1406 | ||
1407 | @example | |
1408 | @group | |
1409 | (memql 1.2 '(1.1 1.2 1.3) ; @r{@code{1.2} and @code{1.2} are @code{eql}.} | |
1410 | @result{} (1.2 1.3) | |
1411 | @end group | |
1412 | @group | |
1413 | (memq 1.2 '(1.1 1.2 1.3) ; @r{@code{1.2} and @code{1.2} are not @code{eq}.} | |
1414 | @result{} nil | |
1415 | @end group | |
1416 | @end example | |
1417 | @end defun | |
1418 | ||
9f081286 RS |
1419 | The following three functions are like @code{memq}, @code{delq} and |
1420 | @code{remq}, but use @code{equal} rather than @code{eq} to compare | |
1421 | elements. @xref{Equality Predicates}. | |
73804d4b RS |
1422 | |
1423 | @defun member object list | |
1424 | The function @code{member} tests to see whether @var{object} is a member | |
1425 | of @var{list}, comparing members with @var{object} using @code{equal}. | |
1426 | If @var{object} is a member, @code{member} returns a list starting with | |
1427 | its first occurrence in @var{list}. Otherwise, it returns @code{nil}. | |
1428 | ||
1429 | Compare this with @code{memq}: | |
1430 | ||
1431 | @example | |
1432 | @group | |
1433 | (member '(2) '((1) (2))) ; @r{@code{(2)} and @code{(2)} are @code{equal}.} | |
1434 | @result{} ((2)) | |
1435 | @end group | |
1436 | @group | |
1437 | (memq '(2) '((1) (2))) ; @r{@code{(2)} and @code{(2)} are not @code{eq}.} | |
1438 | @result{} nil | |
1439 | @end group | |
1440 | @group | |
1441 | ;; @r{Two strings with the same contents are @code{equal}.} | |
1442 | (member "foo" '("foo" "bar")) | |
1443 | @result{} ("foo" "bar") | |
1444 | @end group | |
1445 | @end example | |
1446 | @end defun | |
1447 | ||
f68446ef GM |
1448 | @defun delete object sequence |
1449 | If @code{sequence} is a list, this function destructively removes all | |
1450 | elements @code{equal} to @var{object} from @var{sequence}. For lists, | |
1451 | @code{delete} is to @code{delq} as @code{member} is to @code{memq}: it | |
1452 | uses @code{equal} to compare elements with @var{object}, like | |
1453 | @code{member}; when it finds an element that matches, it removes the | |
1454 | element just as @code{delq} would. | |
1455 | ||
1456 | If @code{sequence} is a vector or string, @code{delete} returns a copy | |
1457 | of @code{sequence} with all elements @code{equal} to @code{object} | |
1458 | removed. | |
1459 | ||
1460 | For example: | |
73804d4b RS |
1461 | |
1462 | @example | |
1463 | @group | |
1464 | (delete '(2) '((2) (1) (2))) | |
b5ef0e92 | 1465 | @result{} ((1)) |
73804d4b | 1466 | @end group |
f68446ef GM |
1467 | @group |
1468 | (delete '(2) [(2) (1) (2)]) | |
1469 | @result{} [(1)] | |
1470 | @end group | |
1471 | @end example | |
1472 | @end defun | |
1473 | ||
1474 | @defun remove object sequence | |
1475 | This function is the non-destructive counterpart of @code{delete}. If | |
1476 | returns a copy of @code{sequence}, a list, vector, or string, with | |
1477 | elements @code{equal} to @code{object} removed. For example: | |
1478 | ||
1479 | @example | |
1480 | @group | |
1481 | (remove '(2) '((2) (1) (2))) | |
1482 | @result{} ((1)) | |
1483 | @end group | |
1484 | @group | |
1485 | (remove '(2) [(2) (1) (2)]) | |
1486 | @result{} [(1)] | |
1487 | @end group | |
73804d4b RS |
1488 | @end example |
1489 | @end defun | |
1490 | ||
1491 | @quotation | |
f68446ef GM |
1492 | @b{Common Lisp note:} The functions @code{member}, @code{delete} and |
1493 | @code{remove} in GNU Emacs Lisp are derived from Maclisp, not Common | |
1494 | Lisp. The Common Lisp versions do not use @code{equal} to compare | |
1495 | elements. | |
73804d4b RS |
1496 | @end quotation |
1497 | ||
19017752 LT |
1498 | @defun member-ignore-case object list |
1499 | This function is like @code{member}, except that @var{object} should | |
1500 | be a string and that it ignores differences in letter-case and text | |
1501 | representation: upper-case and lower-case letters are treated as | |
1502 | equal, and unibyte strings are converted to multibyte prior to | |
1503 | comparison. | |
42101e87 LT |
1504 | @end defun |
1505 | ||
1506 | @defun delete-dups list | |
1507 | This function destructively removes all @code{equal} duplicates from | |
efb47843 LT |
1508 | @var{list}, stores the result in @var{list} and returns it. Of |
1509 | several @code{equal} occurrences of an element in @var{list}, | |
1510 | @code{delete-dups} keeps the first one. | |
19017752 LT |
1511 | @end defun |
1512 | ||
ab04a72a | 1513 | See also the function @code{add-to-list}, in @ref{List Variables}, |
bfe721d1 KH |
1514 | for another way to add an element to a list stored in a variable. |
1515 | ||
73804d4b RS |
1516 | @node Association Lists |
1517 | @section Association Lists | |
1518 | @cindex association list | |
1519 | @cindex alist | |
1520 | ||
1521 | An @dfn{association list}, or @dfn{alist} for short, records a mapping | |
1522 | from keys to values. It is a list of cons cells called | |
74490e55 | 1523 | @dfn{associations}: the @sc{car} of each cons cell is the @dfn{key}, and the |
73804d4b RS |
1524 | @sc{cdr} is the @dfn{associated value}.@footnote{This usage of ``key'' |
1525 | is not related to the term ``key sequence''; it means a value used to | |
1526 | look up an item in a table. In this case, the table is the alist, and | |
1527 | the alist associations are the items.} | |
1528 | ||
1529 | Here is an example of an alist. The key @code{pine} is associated with | |
1530 | the value @code{cones}; the key @code{oak} is associated with | |
1531 | @code{acorns}; and the key @code{maple} is associated with @code{seeds}. | |
1532 | ||
1533 | @example | |
1534 | @group | |
a9749dab RS |
1535 | ((pine . cones) |
1536 | (oak . acorns) | |
1537 | (maple . seeds)) | |
73804d4b RS |
1538 | @end group |
1539 | @end example | |
1540 | ||
ece35e15 KB |
1541 | Both the values and the keys in an alist may be any Lisp objects. |
1542 | For example, in the following alist, the symbol @code{a} is | |
73804d4b RS |
1543 | associated with the number @code{1}, and the string @code{"b"} is |
1544 | associated with the @emph{list} @code{(2 3)}, which is the @sc{cdr} of | |
1545 | the alist element: | |
1546 | ||
1547 | @example | |
1548 | ((a . 1) ("b" 2 3)) | |
1549 | @end example | |
1550 | ||
1551 | Sometimes it is better to design an alist to store the associated | |
1552 | value in the @sc{car} of the @sc{cdr} of the element. Here is an | |
a9749dab | 1553 | example of such an alist: |
73804d4b RS |
1554 | |
1555 | @example | |
a9749dab | 1556 | ((rose red) (lily white) (buttercup yellow)) |
73804d4b RS |
1557 | @end example |
1558 | ||
1559 | @noindent | |
1560 | Here we regard @code{red} as the value associated with @code{rose}. One | |
f9f59935 | 1561 | advantage of this kind of alist is that you can store other related |
73804d4b RS |
1562 | information---even a list of other items---in the @sc{cdr} of the |
1563 | @sc{cdr}. One disadvantage is that you cannot use @code{rassq} (see | |
1564 | below) to find the element containing a given value. When neither of | |
1565 | these considerations is important, the choice is a matter of taste, as | |
1566 | long as you are consistent about it for any given alist. | |
1567 | ||
ece35e15 | 1568 | The same alist shown above could be regarded as having the |
73804d4b RS |
1569 | associated value in the @sc{cdr} of the element; the value associated |
1570 | with @code{rose} would be the list @code{(red)}. | |
1571 | ||
1572 | Association lists are often used to record information that you might | |
1573 | otherwise keep on a stack, since new associations may be added easily to | |
1574 | the front of the list. When searching an association list for an | |
1575 | association with a given key, the first one found is returned, if there | |
1576 | is more than one. | |
1577 | ||
1578 | In Emacs Lisp, it is @emph{not} an error if an element of an | |
1579 | association list is not a cons cell. The alist search functions simply | |
1580 | ignore such elements. Many other versions of Lisp signal errors in such | |
1581 | cases. | |
1582 | ||
1583 | Note that property lists are similar to association lists in several | |
1584 | respects. A property list behaves like an association list in which | |
1585 | each key can occur only once. @xref{Property Lists}, for a comparison | |
1586 | of property lists and association lists. | |
1587 | ||
1588 | @defun assoc key alist | |
1589 | This function returns the first association for @var{key} in | |
1590 | @var{alist}. It compares @var{key} against the alist elements using | |
1591 | @code{equal} (@pxref{Equality Predicates}). It returns @code{nil} if no | |
1592 | association in @var{alist} has a @sc{car} @code{equal} to @var{key}. | |
1593 | For example: | |
1594 | ||
1595 | @smallexample | |
1596 | (setq trees '((pine . cones) (oak . acorns) (maple . seeds))) | |
1597 | @result{} ((pine . cones) (oak . acorns) (maple . seeds)) | |
1598 | (assoc 'oak trees) | |
1599 | @result{} (oak . acorns) | |
1600 | (cdr (assoc 'oak trees)) | |
1601 | @result{} acorns | |
1602 | (assoc 'birch trees) | |
1603 | @result{} nil | |
1604 | @end smallexample | |
1605 | ||
2b3fc6c3 | 1606 | Here is another example, in which the keys and values are not symbols: |
73804d4b RS |
1607 | |
1608 | @smallexample | |
1609 | (setq needles-per-cluster | |
1610 | '((2 "Austrian Pine" "Red Pine") | |
1611 | (3 "Pitch Pine") | |
1612 | (5 "White Pine"))) | |
1613 | ||
1614 | (cdr (assoc 3 needles-per-cluster)) | |
1615 | @result{} ("Pitch Pine") | |
1616 | (cdr (assoc 2 needles-per-cluster)) | |
1617 | @result{} ("Austrian Pine" "Red Pine") | |
1618 | @end smallexample | |
1619 | @end defun | |
1620 | ||
9f081286 RS |
1621 | The function @code{assoc-string} is much like @code{assoc} except |
1622 | that it ignores certain differences between strings. @xref{Text | |
1623 | Comparison}. | |
a9f0a989 | 1624 | |
22697dac KH |
1625 | @defun rassoc value alist |
1626 | This function returns the first association with value @var{value} in | |
1627 | @var{alist}. It returns @code{nil} if no association in @var{alist} has | |
1628 | a @sc{cdr} @code{equal} to @var{value}. | |
1629 | ||
1630 | @code{rassoc} is like @code{assoc} except that it compares the @sc{cdr} of | |
1631 | each @var{alist} association instead of the @sc{car}. You can think of | |
827b7ee7 | 1632 | this as ``reverse @code{assoc},'' finding the key for a given value. |
22697dac KH |
1633 | @end defun |
1634 | ||
73804d4b RS |
1635 | @defun assq key alist |
1636 | This function is like @code{assoc} in that it returns the first | |
1637 | association for @var{key} in @var{alist}, but it makes the comparison | |
1638 | using @code{eq} instead of @code{equal}. @code{assq} returns @code{nil} | |
1639 | if no association in @var{alist} has a @sc{car} @code{eq} to @var{key}. | |
1640 | This function is used more often than @code{assoc}, since @code{eq} is | |
1641 | faster than @code{equal} and most alists use symbols as keys. | |
1642 | @xref{Equality Predicates}. | |
1643 | ||
1644 | @smallexample | |
1645 | (setq trees '((pine . cones) (oak . acorns) (maple . seeds))) | |
1646 | @result{} ((pine . cones) (oak . acorns) (maple . seeds)) | |
1647 | (assq 'pine trees) | |
1648 | @result{} (pine . cones) | |
1649 | @end smallexample | |
1650 | ||
1651 | On the other hand, @code{assq} is not usually useful in alists where the | |
1652 | keys may not be symbols: | |
1653 | ||
1654 | @smallexample | |
1655 | (setq leaves | |
1656 | '(("simple leaves" . oak) | |
1657 | ("compound leaves" . horsechestnut))) | |
1658 | ||
1659 | (assq "simple leaves" leaves) | |
1660 | @result{} nil | |
1661 | (assoc "simple leaves" leaves) | |
1662 | @result{} ("simple leaves" . oak) | |
1663 | @end smallexample | |
1664 | @end defun | |
1665 | ||
1666 | @defun rassq value alist | |
1667 | This function returns the first association with value @var{value} in | |
1668 | @var{alist}. It returns @code{nil} if no association in @var{alist} has | |
1669 | a @sc{cdr} @code{eq} to @var{value}. | |
1670 | ||
1671 | @code{rassq} is like @code{assq} except that it compares the @sc{cdr} of | |
1672 | each @var{alist} association instead of the @sc{car}. You can think of | |
827b7ee7 | 1673 | this as ``reverse @code{assq},'' finding the key for a given value. |
73804d4b RS |
1674 | |
1675 | For example: | |
1676 | ||
1677 | @smallexample | |
1678 | (setq trees '((pine . cones) (oak . acorns) (maple . seeds))) | |
1679 | ||
1680 | (rassq 'acorns trees) | |
1681 | @result{} (oak . acorns) | |
1682 | (rassq 'spores trees) | |
1683 | @result{} nil | |
1684 | @end smallexample | |
1685 | ||
ece35e15 | 1686 | @code{rassq} cannot search for a value stored in the @sc{car} |
73804d4b RS |
1687 | of the @sc{cdr} of an element: |
1688 | ||
1689 | @smallexample | |
1690 | (setq colors '((rose red) (lily white) (buttercup yellow))) | |
1691 | ||
1692 | (rassq 'white colors) | |
1693 | @result{} nil | |
1694 | @end smallexample | |
1695 | ||
1696 | In this case, the @sc{cdr} of the association @code{(lily white)} is not | |
1697 | the symbol @code{white}, but rather the list @code{(white)}. This | |
1698 | becomes clearer if the association is written in dotted pair notation: | |
1699 | ||
1700 | @smallexample | |
1701 | (lily white) @equiv{} (lily . (white)) | |
1702 | @end smallexample | |
1703 | @end defun | |
1704 | ||
a9749dab | 1705 | @defun assoc-default key alist &optional test default |
a46dba07 RS |
1706 | This function searches @var{alist} for a match for @var{key}. For each |
1707 | element of @var{alist}, it compares the element (if it is an atom) or | |
1708 | the element's @sc{car} (if it is a cons) against @var{key}, by calling | |
1709 | @var{test} with two arguments: the element or its @sc{car}, and | |
1710 | @var{key}. The arguments are passed in that order so that you can get | |
1711 | useful results using @code{string-match} with an alist that contains | |
1712 | regular expressions (@pxref{Regexp Search}). If @var{test} is omitted | |
1713 | or @code{nil}, @code{equal} is used for comparison. | |
1714 | ||
1715 | If an alist element matches @var{key} by this criterion, | |
1716 | then @code{assoc-default} returns a value based on this element. | |
1717 | If the element is a cons, then the value is the element's @sc{cdr}. | |
1718 | Otherwise, the return value is @var{default}. | |
1719 | ||
1720 | If no alist element matches @var{key}, @code{assoc-default} returns | |
1721 | @code{nil}. | |
1722 | @end defun | |
1723 | ||
73804d4b RS |
1724 | @defun copy-alist alist |
1725 | @cindex copying alists | |
1726 | This function returns a two-level deep copy of @var{alist}: it creates a | |
1727 | new copy of each association, so that you can alter the associations of | |
1728 | the new alist without changing the old one. | |
1729 | ||
1730 | @smallexample | |
1731 | @group | |
1732 | (setq needles-per-cluster | |
1733 | '((2 . ("Austrian Pine" "Red Pine")) | |
2b3fc6c3 | 1734 | (3 . ("Pitch Pine")) |
ec221d13 | 1735 | @end group |
2b3fc6c3 | 1736 | (5 . ("White Pine")))) |
73804d4b RS |
1737 | @result{} |
1738 | ((2 "Austrian Pine" "Red Pine") | |
2b3fc6c3 RS |
1739 | (3 "Pitch Pine") |
1740 | (5 "White Pine")) | |
73804d4b RS |
1741 | |
1742 | (setq copy (copy-alist needles-per-cluster)) | |
1743 | @result{} | |
1744 | ((2 "Austrian Pine" "Red Pine") | |
2b3fc6c3 RS |
1745 | (3 "Pitch Pine") |
1746 | (5 "White Pine")) | |
73804d4b RS |
1747 | |
1748 | (eq needles-per-cluster copy) | |
1749 | @result{} nil | |
1750 | (equal needles-per-cluster copy) | |
1751 | @result{} t | |
1752 | (eq (car needles-per-cluster) (car copy)) | |
1753 | @result{} nil | |
1754 | (cdr (car (cdr needles-per-cluster))) | |
2b3fc6c3 | 1755 | @result{} ("Pitch Pine") |
ec221d13 | 1756 | @group |
73804d4b RS |
1757 | (eq (cdr (car (cdr needles-per-cluster))) |
1758 | (cdr (car (cdr copy)))) | |
1759 | @result{} t | |
1760 | @end group | |
3e099569 | 1761 | @end smallexample |
2b3fc6c3 RS |
1762 | |
1763 | This example shows how @code{copy-alist} makes it possible to change | |
1764 | the associations of one copy without affecting the other: | |
1765 | ||
3e099569 | 1766 | @smallexample |
2b3fc6c3 | 1767 | @group |
c74c521d | 1768 | (setcdr (assq 3 copy) '("Martian Vacuum Pine")) |
2b3fc6c3 RS |
1769 | (cdr (assq 3 needles-per-cluster)) |
1770 | @result{} ("Pitch Pine") | |
1771 | @end group | |
73804d4b RS |
1772 | @end smallexample |
1773 | @end defun | |
1774 | ||
61b23410 | 1775 | @defun assq-delete-all key alist |
8241495d | 1776 | This function deletes from @var{alist} all the elements whose @sc{car} |
66fd2c72 | 1777 | is @code{eq} to @var{key}, much as if you used @code{delq} to delete |
19017752 | 1778 | each such element one by one. It returns the shortened alist, and |
66fd2c72 RS |
1779 | often modifies the original list structure of @var{alist}. For |
1780 | correct results, use the return value of @code{assq-delete-all} rather | |
1781 | than looking at the saved value of @var{alist}. | |
73804d4b | 1782 | |
8241495d | 1783 | @example |
66fd2c72 RS |
1784 | (setq alist '((foo 1) (bar 2) (foo 3) (lose 4))) |
1785 | @result{} ((foo 1) (bar 2) (foo 3) (lose 4)) | |
1786 | (assq-delete-all 'foo alist) | |
8241495d | 1787 | @result{} ((bar 2) (lose 4)) |
66fd2c72 RS |
1788 | alist |
1789 | @result{} ((foo 1) (bar 2) (lose 4)) | |
8241495d RS |
1790 | @end example |
1791 | @end defun | |
ab5796a9 | 1792 | |
0e6fb1e6 LK |
1793 | @defun rassq-delete-all value alist |
1794 | This function deletes from @var{alist} all the elements whose @sc{cdr} | |
1795 | is @code{eq} to @var{value}. It returns the shortened alist, and | |
1796 | often modifies the original list structure of @var{alist}. | |
1797 | @code{rassq-delete-all} is like @code{assq-delete-all} except that it | |
1798 | compares the @sc{cdr} of each @var{alist} association instead of the | |
1799 | @sc{car}. | |
1800 | @end defun | |
1801 | ||
a99eb78d RS |
1802 | @node Rings |
1803 | @section Managing a Fixed-Size Ring of Objects | |
1804 | ||
1805 | @cindex ring data structure | |
1806 | This section describes functions for operating on rings. A | |
1807 | @dfn{ring} is a fixed-size data structure that supports insertion, | |
1808 | deletion, rotation, and modulo-indexed reference and traversal. | |
1809 | ||
1810 | @defun make-ring size | |
1811 | This returns a new ring capable of holding @var{size} objects. | |
1812 | @var{size} should be an integer. | |
1813 | @end defun | |
1814 | ||
1815 | @defun ring-p object | |
0ff13af9 | 1816 | This returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a ring, @code{nil} otherwise. |
a99eb78d RS |
1817 | @end defun |
1818 | ||
1819 | @defun ring-size ring | |
1820 | This returns the maximum capacity of the @var{ring}. | |
1821 | @end defun | |
1822 | ||
1823 | @defun ring-length ring | |
1824 | This returns the number of objects that @var{ring} currently contains. | |
1825 | The value will never exceed that returned by @code{ring-size}. | |
1826 | @end defun | |
1827 | ||
1828 | @defun ring-elements ring | |
eaf664cf | 1829 | This returns a list of the objects in @var{ring}, in order, newest first. |
a99eb78d RS |
1830 | @end defun |
1831 | ||
1832 | @defun ring-copy ring | |
1833 | This returns a new ring which is a copy of @var{ring}. | |
0ff13af9 | 1834 | The new ring contains the same (@code{eq}) objects as @var{ring}. |
a99eb78d RS |
1835 | @end defun |
1836 | ||
1837 | @defun ring-empty-p ring | |
0ff13af9 | 1838 | This returns @code{t} if @var{ring} is empty, @code{nil} otherwise. |
a99eb78d RS |
1839 | @end defun |
1840 | ||
0ff13af9 LT |
1841 | The newest element in the ring always has index 0. Higher indices |
1842 | correspond to older elements. Indices are computed modulo the ring | |
1843 | length. Index @minus{}1 corresponds to the oldest element, @minus{}2 | |
1844 | to the next-oldest, and so forth. | |
a99eb78d RS |
1845 | |
1846 | @defun ring-ref ring index | |
1847 | This returns the object in @var{ring} found at index @var{index}. | |
1848 | @var{index} may be negative or greater than the ring length. If | |
1849 | @var{ring} is empty, @code{ring-ref} signals an error. | |
1850 | @end defun | |
1851 | ||
1852 | @defun ring-insert ring object | |
1853 | This inserts @var{object} into @var{ring}, making it the newest | |
1854 | element, and returns @var{object}. | |
1855 | ||
1856 | If the ring is full, insertion removes the oldest element to | |
1857 | make room for the new element. | |
1858 | @end defun | |
1859 | ||
1860 | @defun ring-remove ring &optional index | |
1861 | Remove an object from @var{ring}, and return that object. The | |
1862 | argument @var{index} specifies which item to remove; if it is | |
1863 | @code{nil}, that means to remove the oldest item. If @var{ring} is | |
1864 | empty, @code{ring-remove} signals an error. | |
1865 | @end defun | |
1866 | ||
1867 | @defun ring-insert-at-beginning ring object | |
1868 | This inserts @var{object} into @var{ring}, treating it as the oldest | |
0ff13af9 | 1869 | element. The return value is not significant. |
a99eb78d RS |
1870 | |
1871 | If the ring is full, this function removes the newest element to make | |
1872 | room for the inserted element. | |
1873 | @end defun | |
1874 | ||
1875 | @cindex fifo data structure | |
1876 | If you are careful not to exceed the ring size, you can | |
1877 | use the ring as a first-in-first-out queue. For example: | |
1878 | ||
1879 | @lisp | |
1880 | (let ((fifo (make-ring 5))) | |
1881 | (mapc (lambda (obj) (ring-insert fifo obj)) | |
1882 | '(0 one "two")) | |
1883 | (list (ring-remove fifo) t | |
1884 | (ring-remove fifo) t | |
1885 | (ring-remove fifo))) | |
1886 | @result{} (0 t one t "two") | |
1887 | @end lisp | |
1888 | ||
ab5796a9 MB |
1889 | @ignore |
1890 | arch-tag: 31fb8a4e-4aa8-4a74-a206-aa00451394d4 | |
1891 | @end ignore |