Commit | Line | Data |
---|---|---|
73804d4b RS |
1 | @c -*-texinfo-*- |
2 | @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual. | |
651f374c | 3 | @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1998, 1999, 2002, 2003, |
ceb4c4d3 | 4 | @c 2004, 2005, 2006 Free Software Foundation, Inc. |
73804d4b RS |
5 | @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions. |
6 | @setfilename ../info/lists | |
7 | @node Lists, Sequences Arrays Vectors, Strings and Characters, Top | |
8 | @chapter Lists | |
9 | @cindex list | |
10 | @cindex element (of list) | |
11 | ||
12 | A @dfn{list} represents a sequence of zero or more elements (which may | |
13 | be any Lisp objects). The important difference between lists and | |
14 | vectors is that two or more lists can share part of their structure; in | |
15 | addition, you can insert or delete elements in a list without copying | |
16 | the whole list. | |
17 | ||
18 | @menu | |
19 | * Cons Cells:: How lists are made out of cons cells. | |
73804d4b RS |
20 | * List-related Predicates:: Is this object a list? Comparing two lists. |
21 | * List Elements:: Extracting the pieces of a list. | |
22 | * Building Lists:: Creating list structure. | |
23 | * Modifying Lists:: Storing new pieces into an existing list. | |
24 | * Sets And Lists:: A list can represent a finite mathematical set. | |
25 | * Association Lists:: A list can represent a finite relation or mapping. | |
a99eb78d | 26 | * Rings:: Managing a fixed-size ring of objects. |
73804d4b RS |
27 | @end menu |
28 | ||
29 | @node Cons Cells | |
30 | @section Lists and Cons Cells | |
31 | @cindex lists and cons cells | |
32 | @cindex @code{nil} and lists | |
33 | ||
34 | Lists in Lisp are not a primitive data type; they are built up from | |
2b3fc6c3 | 35 | @dfn{cons cells}. A cons cell is a data object that represents an |
3998eed0 RS |
36 | ordered pair. That is, it has two slots, and each slot @dfn{holds}, or |
37 | @dfn{refers to}, some Lisp object. One slot is known as the @sc{car}, | |
38 | and the other is known as the @sc{cdr}. (These names are traditional; | |
39 | see @ref{Cons Cell Type}.) @sc{cdr} is pronounced ``could-er.'' | |
73804d4b | 40 | |
3998eed0 RS |
41 | We say that ``the @sc{car} of this cons cell is'' whatever object |
42 | its @sc{car} slot currently holds, and likewise for the @sc{cdr}. | |
43 | ||
44 | A list is a series of cons cells ``chained together,'' so that each | |
05aea714 | 45 | cell refers to the next one. There is one cons cell for each element of |
3998eed0 RS |
46 | the list. By convention, the @sc{car}s of the cons cells hold the |
47 | elements of the list, and the @sc{cdr}s are used to chain the list: the | |
48 | @sc{cdr} slot of each cons cell refers to the following cons cell. The | |
49 | @sc{cdr} of the last cons cell is @code{nil}. This asymmetry between | |
50 | the @sc{car} and the @sc{cdr} is entirely a matter of convention; at the | |
73804d4b RS |
51 | level of cons cells, the @sc{car} and @sc{cdr} slots have the same |
52 | characteristics. | |
53 | ||
d6702947 RS |
54 | @cindex true list |
55 | Since @code{nil} is the conventional value to put in the @sc{cdr} of | |
56 | the last cons cell in the list, we call that case a @dfn{true list}. | |
57 | ||
58 | In Lisp, we consider the symbol @code{nil} a list as well as a | |
59 | symbol; it is the list with no elements. For convenience, the symbol | |
60 | @code{nil} is considered to have @code{nil} as its @sc{cdr} (and also | |
61 | as its @sc{car}). Therefore, the @sc{cdr} of a true list is always a | |
62 | true list. | |
63 | ||
64 | @cindex dotted list | |
65 | @cindex circular list | |
66 | If the @sc{cdr} of a list's last cons cell is some other value, | |
67 | neither @code{nil} nor another cons cell, we call the structure a | |
68 | @dfn{dotted list}, since its printed representation would use | |
69 | @samp{.}. There is one other possibility: some cons cell's @sc{cdr} | |
70 | could point to one of the previous cons cells in the list. We call | |
71 | that structure a @dfn{circular list}. | |
72 | ||
73 | For some purposes, it does not matter whether a list is true, | |
74 | circular or dotted. If the program doesn't look far enough down the | |
75 | list to see the @sc{cdr} of the final cons cell, it won't care. | |
76 | However, some functions that operate on lists demand true lists and | |
77 | signal errors if given a dotted list. Most functions that try to find | |
78 | the end of a list enter infinite loops if given a circular list. | |
79 | ||
2b3fc6c3 RS |
80 | @cindex list structure |
81 | Because most cons cells are used as part of lists, the phrase | |
82 | @dfn{list structure} has come to mean any structure made out of cons | |
83 | cells. | |
84 | ||
3fd64c56 | 85 | The @sc{cdr} of any nonempty true list @var{l} is a list containing all the |
73804d4b RS |
86 | elements of @var{l} except the first. |
87 | ||
2b3fc6c3 | 88 | @xref{Cons Cell Type}, for the read and print syntax of cons cells and |
5838fa52 | 89 | lists, and for ``box and arrow'' illustrations of lists. |
73804d4b RS |
90 | |
91 | @node List-related Predicates | |
92 | @section Predicates on Lists | |
93 | ||
23e69ab1 RS |
94 | The following predicates test whether a Lisp object is an atom, |
95 | whether it is a cons cell or is a list, or whether it is the | |
96 | distinguished object @code{nil}. (Many of these predicates can be | |
97 | defined in terms of the others, but they are used so often that it is | |
98 | worth having all of them.) | |
73804d4b RS |
99 | |
100 | @defun consp object | |
101 | This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a cons cell, @code{nil} | |
102 | otherwise. @code{nil} is not a cons cell, although it @emph{is} a list. | |
103 | @end defun | |
104 | ||
105 | @defun atom object | |
106 | @cindex atoms | |
107 | This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is an atom, @code{nil} | |
108 | otherwise. All objects except cons cells are atoms. The symbol | |
109 | @code{nil} is an atom and is also a list; it is the only Lisp object | |
2b3fc6c3 | 110 | that is both. |
73804d4b RS |
111 | |
112 | @example | |
113 | (atom @var{object}) @equiv{} (not (consp @var{object})) | |
114 | @end example | |
115 | @end defun | |
116 | ||
117 | @defun listp object | |
118 | This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a cons cell or | |
119 | @code{nil}. Otherwise, it returns @code{nil}. | |
120 | ||
121 | @example | |
122 | @group | |
123 | (listp '(1)) | |
124 | @result{} t | |
125 | @end group | |
126 | @group | |
127 | (listp '()) | |
128 | @result{} t | |
129 | @end group | |
130 | @end example | |
131 | @end defun | |
132 | ||
133 | @defun nlistp object | |
134 | This function is the opposite of @code{listp}: it returns @code{t} if | |
135 | @var{object} is not a list. Otherwise, it returns @code{nil}. | |
136 | ||
137 | @example | |
138 | (listp @var{object}) @equiv{} (not (nlistp @var{object})) | |
139 | @end example | |
140 | @end defun | |
141 | ||
142 | @defun null object | |
143 | This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is @code{nil}, and | |
144 | returns @code{nil} otherwise. This function is identical to @code{not}, | |
145 | but as a matter of clarity we use @code{null} when @var{object} is | |
146 | considered a list and @code{not} when it is considered a truth value | |
147 | (see @code{not} in @ref{Combining Conditions}). | |
148 | ||
149 | @example | |
150 | @group | |
151 | (null '(1)) | |
152 | @result{} nil | |
153 | @end group | |
154 | @group | |
155 | (null '()) | |
156 | @result{} t | |
157 | @end group | |
158 | @end example | |
159 | @end defun | |
160 | ||
ec221d13 | 161 | @need 2000 |
73804d4b RS |
162 | |
163 | @node List Elements | |
164 | @section Accessing Elements of Lists | |
165 | @cindex list elements | |
166 | ||
167 | @defun car cons-cell | |
b6954afd | 168 | This function returns the value referred to by the first slot of the |
73804d4b RS |
169 | cons cell @var{cons-cell}. Expressed another way, this function |
170 | returns the @sc{car} of @var{cons-cell}. | |
171 | ||
172 | As a special case, if @var{cons-cell} is @code{nil}, then @code{car} | |
173 | is defined to return @code{nil}; therefore, any list is a valid argument | |
174 | for @code{car}. An error is signaled if the argument is not a cons cell | |
175 | or @code{nil}. | |
176 | ||
177 | @example | |
178 | @group | |
179 | (car '(a b c)) | |
180 | @result{} a | |
181 | @end group | |
182 | @group | |
183 | (car '()) | |
184 | @result{} nil | |
185 | @end group | |
186 | @end example | |
187 | @end defun | |
188 | ||
189 | @defun cdr cons-cell | |
b6954afd | 190 | This function returns the value referred to by the second slot of |
73804d4b RS |
191 | the cons cell @var{cons-cell}. Expressed another way, this function |
192 | returns the @sc{cdr} of @var{cons-cell}. | |
193 | ||
194 | As a special case, if @var{cons-cell} is @code{nil}, then @code{cdr} | |
195 | is defined to return @code{nil}; therefore, any list is a valid argument | |
196 | for @code{cdr}. An error is signaled if the argument is not a cons cell | |
197 | or @code{nil}. | |
198 | ||
199 | @example | |
200 | @group | |
201 | (cdr '(a b c)) | |
202 | @result{} (b c) | |
203 | @end group | |
204 | @group | |
205 | (cdr '()) | |
206 | @result{} nil | |
207 | @end group | |
208 | @end example | |
209 | @end defun | |
210 | ||
211 | @defun car-safe object | |
212 | This function lets you take the @sc{car} of a cons cell while avoiding | |
213 | errors for other data types. It returns the @sc{car} of @var{object} if | |
214 | @var{object} is a cons cell, @code{nil} otherwise. This is in contrast | |
215 | to @code{car}, which signals an error if @var{object} is not a list. | |
216 | ||
217 | @example | |
218 | @group | |
219 | (car-safe @var{object}) | |
220 | @equiv{} | |
221 | (let ((x @var{object})) | |
222 | (if (consp x) | |
223 | (car x) | |
224 | nil)) | |
225 | @end group | |
226 | @end example | |
227 | @end defun | |
228 | ||
229 | @defun cdr-safe object | |
230 | This function lets you take the @sc{cdr} of a cons cell while | |
231 | avoiding errors for other data types. It returns the @sc{cdr} of | |
232 | @var{object} if @var{object} is a cons cell, @code{nil} otherwise. | |
233 | This is in contrast to @code{cdr}, which signals an error if | |
234 | @var{object} is not a list. | |
235 | ||
236 | @example | |
237 | @group | |
238 | (cdr-safe @var{object}) | |
239 | @equiv{} | |
240 | (let ((x @var{object})) | |
241 | (if (consp x) | |
242 | (cdr x) | |
243 | nil)) | |
244 | @end group | |
245 | @end example | |
246 | @end defun | |
247 | ||
8241495d RS |
248 | @tindex pop |
249 | @defmac pop listname | |
250 | This macro is a way of examining the @sc{car} of a list, | |
aa9261ac | 251 | and taking it off the list, all at once. |
8241495d RS |
252 | |
253 | It operates on the list which is stored in the symbol @var{listname}. | |
254 | It removes this element from the list by setting @var{listname} | |
255 | to the @sc{cdr} of its old value---but it also returns the @sc{car} | |
256 | of that list, which is the element being removed. | |
257 | ||
258 | @example | |
259 | x | |
260 | @result{} (a b c) | |
261 | (pop x) | |
262 | @result{} a | |
263 | x | |
264 | @result{} (b c) | |
265 | @end example | |
266 | @end defmac | |
267 | ||
73804d4b | 268 | @defun nth n list |
7baeca0c | 269 | @anchor{Definition of nth} |
73804d4b RS |
270 | This function returns the @var{n}th element of @var{list}. Elements |
271 | are numbered starting with zero, so the @sc{car} of @var{list} is | |
272 | element number zero. If the length of @var{list} is @var{n} or less, | |
273 | the value is @code{nil}. | |
274 | ||
275 | If @var{n} is negative, @code{nth} returns the first element of | |
276 | @var{list}. | |
277 | ||
278 | @example | |
279 | @group | |
280 | (nth 2 '(1 2 3 4)) | |
281 | @result{} 3 | |
282 | @end group | |
283 | @group | |
284 | (nth 10 '(1 2 3 4)) | |
285 | @result{} nil | |
286 | @end group | |
287 | @group | |
288 | (nth -3 '(1 2 3 4)) | |
289 | @result{} 1 | |
290 | ||
291 | (nth n x) @equiv{} (car (nthcdr n x)) | |
292 | @end group | |
293 | @end example | |
969fe9b5 RS |
294 | |
295 | The function @code{elt} is similar, but applies to any kind of sequence. | |
296 | For historical reasons, it takes its arguments in the opposite order. | |
297 | @xref{Sequence Functions}. | |
73804d4b RS |
298 | @end defun |
299 | ||
300 | @defun nthcdr n list | |
301 | This function returns the @var{n}th @sc{cdr} of @var{list}. In other | |
f9f59935 | 302 | words, it skips past the first @var{n} links of @var{list} and returns |
73804d4b RS |
303 | what follows. |
304 | ||
305 | If @var{n} is zero or negative, @code{nthcdr} returns all of | |
306 | @var{list}. If the length of @var{list} is @var{n} or less, | |
307 | @code{nthcdr} returns @code{nil}. | |
308 | ||
309 | @example | |
310 | @group | |
311 | (nthcdr 1 '(1 2 3 4)) | |
312 | @result{} (2 3 4) | |
313 | @end group | |
314 | @group | |
315 | (nthcdr 10 '(1 2 3 4)) | |
316 | @result{} nil | |
317 | @end group | |
318 | @group | |
319 | (nthcdr -3 '(1 2 3 4)) | |
320 | @result{} (1 2 3 4) | |
321 | @end group | |
322 | @end example | |
323 | @end defun | |
324 | ||
dbda27d1 | 325 | @defun last list &optional n |
6fe50867 RS |
326 | This function returns the last link of @var{list}. The @code{car} of |
327 | this link is the list's last element. If @var{list} is null, | |
328 | @code{nil} is returned. If @var{n} is non-@code{nil}, the | |
329 | @var{n}th-to-last link is returned instead, or the whole of @var{list} | |
330 | if @var{n} is bigger than @var{list}'s length. | |
dbda27d1 DL |
331 | @end defun |
332 | ||
969fe9b5 | 333 | @defun safe-length list |
7baeca0c | 334 | @anchor{Definition of safe-length} |
d6702947 RS |
335 | This function returns the length of @var{list}, with no risk of either |
336 | an error or an infinite loop. It generally returns the number of | |
337 | distinct cons cells in the list. However, for circular lists, | |
338 | the value is just an upper bound; it is often too large. | |
f9f59935 | 339 | |
d6702947 RS |
340 | If @var{list} is not @code{nil} or a cons cell, @code{safe-length} |
341 | returns 0. | |
f9f59935 RS |
342 | @end defun |
343 | ||
969fe9b5 RS |
344 | The most common way to compute the length of a list, when you are not |
345 | worried that it may be circular, is with @code{length}. @xref{Sequence | |
346 | Functions}. | |
347 | ||
969fe9b5 RS |
348 | @defun caar cons-cell |
349 | This is the same as @code{(car (car @var{cons-cell}))}. | |
f9f59935 RS |
350 | @end defun |
351 | ||
969fe9b5 RS |
352 | @defun cadr cons-cell |
353 | This is the same as @code{(car (cdr @var{cons-cell}))} | |
354 | or @code{(nth 1 @var{cons-cell})}. | |
f9f59935 RS |
355 | @end defun |
356 | ||
969fe9b5 RS |
357 | @defun cdar cons-cell |
358 | This is the same as @code{(cdr (car @var{cons-cell}))}. | |
f9f59935 RS |
359 | @end defun |
360 | ||
969fe9b5 RS |
361 | @defun cddr cons-cell |
362 | This is the same as @code{(cdr (cdr @var{cons-cell}))} | |
363 | or @code{(nthcdr 2 @var{cons-cell})}. | |
f9f59935 RS |
364 | @end defun |
365 | ||
023045d6 DL |
366 | @defun butlast x &optional n |
367 | This function returns the list @var{x} with the last element, | |
368 | or the last @var{n} elements, removed. If @var{n} is greater | |
369 | than zero it makes a copy of the list so as not to damage the | |
370 | original list. In general, @code{(append (butlast @var{x} @var{n}) | |
371 | (last @var{x} @var{n}))} will return a list equal to @var{x}. | |
372 | @end defun | |
373 | ||
374 | @defun nbutlast x &optional n | |
375 | This is a version of @code{butlast} that works by destructively | |
376 | modifying the @code{cdr} of the appropriate element, rather than | |
377 | making a copy of the list. | |
378 | @end defun | |
379 | ||
73804d4b RS |
380 | @node Building Lists |
381 | @comment node-name, next, previous, up | |
382 | @section Building Cons Cells and Lists | |
383 | @cindex cons cells | |
384 | @cindex building lists | |
385 | ||
386 | Many functions build lists, as lists reside at the very heart of Lisp. | |
387 | @code{cons} is the fundamental list-building function; however, it is | |
388 | interesting to note that @code{list} is used more times in the source | |
389 | code for Emacs than @code{cons}. | |
390 | ||
391 | @defun cons object1 object2 | |
a2fdaa28 | 392 | This function is the most basic function for building new list |
73804d4b | 393 | structure. It creates a new cons cell, making @var{object1} the |
a2fdaa28 RS |
394 | @sc{car}, and @var{object2} the @sc{cdr}. It then returns the new |
395 | cons cell. The arguments @var{object1} and @var{object2} may be any | |
396 | Lisp objects, but most often @var{object2} is a list. | |
73804d4b RS |
397 | |
398 | @example | |
399 | @group | |
400 | (cons 1 '(2)) | |
401 | @result{} (1 2) | |
402 | @end group | |
403 | @group | |
404 | (cons 1 '()) | |
405 | @result{} (1) | |
406 | @end group | |
407 | @group | |
408 | (cons 1 2) | |
409 | @result{} (1 . 2) | |
410 | @end group | |
411 | @end example | |
412 | ||
413 | @cindex consing | |
414 | @code{cons} is often used to add a single element to the front of a | |
1e344ee2 SM |
415 | list. This is called @dfn{consing the element onto the list}. |
416 | @footnote{There is no strictly equivalent way to add an element to | |
417 | the end of a list. You can use @code{(append @var{listname} (list | |
418 | @var{newelt}))}, which creates a whole new list by copying @var{listname} | |
419 | and adding @var{newelt} to its end. Or you can use @code{(nconc | |
420 | @var{listname} (list @var{newelt}))}, which modifies @var{listname} | |
421 | by following all the @sc{cdr}s and then replacing the terminating | |
422 | @code{nil}. Compare this to adding an element to the beginning of a | |
423 | list with @code{cons}, which neither copies nor modifies the list.} | |
424 | For example: | |
73804d4b RS |
425 | |
426 | @example | |
427 | (setq list (cons newelt list)) | |
428 | @end example | |
429 | ||
430 | Note that there is no conflict between the variable named @code{list} | |
431 | used in this example and the function named @code{list} described below; | |
432 | any symbol can serve both purposes. | |
433 | @end defun | |
434 | ||
8241495d RS |
435 | @tindex push |
436 | @defmac push newelt listname | |
437 | This macro provides an alternative way to write | |
438 | @code{(setq @var{listname} (cons @var{newelt} @var{listname}))}. | |
a9749dab RS |
439 | |
440 | @example | |
177c0ea7 | 441 | (setq l '(a b)) |
a9749dab RS |
442 | @result{} (a b) |
443 | (push 'c l) | |
444 | @result{} (c a b) | |
445 | l | |
446 | @result{} (c a b) | |
447 | @end example | |
8241495d RS |
448 | @end defmac |
449 | ||
73804d4b RS |
450 | @defun list &rest objects |
451 | This function creates a list with @var{objects} as its elements. The | |
452 | resulting list is always @code{nil}-terminated. If no @var{objects} | |
453 | are given, the empty list is returned. | |
454 | ||
455 | @example | |
456 | @group | |
457 | (list 1 2 3 4 5) | |
458 | @result{} (1 2 3 4 5) | |
459 | @end group | |
460 | @group | |
461 | (list 1 2 '(3 4 5) 'foo) | |
462 | @result{} (1 2 (3 4 5) foo) | |
463 | @end group | |
464 | @group | |
465 | (list) | |
466 | @result{} nil | |
467 | @end group | |
468 | @end example | |
469 | @end defun | |
470 | ||
471 | @defun make-list length object | |
a9749dab RS |
472 | This function creates a list of @var{length} elements, in which each |
473 | element is @var{object}. Compare @code{make-list} with | |
474 | @code{make-string} (@pxref{Creating Strings}). | |
73804d4b RS |
475 | |
476 | @example | |
477 | @group | |
478 | (make-list 3 'pigs) | |
479 | @result{} (pigs pigs pigs) | |
480 | @end group | |
481 | @group | |
482 | (make-list 0 'pigs) | |
483 | @result{} nil | |
484 | @end group | |
a9749dab RS |
485 | @group |
486 | (setq l (make-list 3 '(a b)) | |
487 | @result{} ((a b) (a b) (a b)) | |
488 | (eq (car l) (cadr l)) | |
489 | @result{} t | |
490 | @end group | |
73804d4b RS |
491 | @end example |
492 | @end defun | |
493 | ||
494 | @defun append &rest sequences | |
495 | @cindex copying lists | |
496 | This function returns a list containing all the elements of | |
969fe9b5 RS |
497 | @var{sequences}. The @var{sequences} may be lists, vectors, |
498 | bool-vectors, or strings, but the last one should usually be a list. | |
499 | All arguments except the last one are copied, so none of the arguments | |
500 | is altered. (See @code{nconc} in @ref{Rearrangement}, for a way to join | |
501 | lists with no copying.) | |
2b3fc6c3 RS |
502 | |
503 | More generally, the final argument to @code{append} may be any Lisp | |
504 | object. The final argument is not copied or converted; it becomes the | |
505 | @sc{cdr} of the last cons cell in the new list. If the final argument | |
506 | is itself a list, then its elements become in effect elements of the | |
507 | result list. If the final element is not a list, the result is a | |
948caddf | 508 | dotted list since its final @sc{cdr} is not @code{nil} as required |
2b3fc6c3 | 509 | in a true list. |
73804d4b | 510 | |
19017752 LT |
511 | In Emacs 20 and before, the @code{append} function also allowed |
512 | integers as (non last) arguments. It converted them to strings of | |
513 | digits, making up the decimal print representation of the integer, and | |
514 | then used the strings instead of the original integers. This obsolete | |
515 | usage no longer works. The proper way to convert an integer to a | |
516 | decimal number in this way is with @code{format} (@pxref{Formatting | |
517 | Strings}) or @code{number-to-string} (@pxref{String Conversion}). | |
7dd3d99f RS |
518 | @end defun |
519 | ||
520 | Here is an example of using @code{append}: | |
73804d4b RS |
521 | |
522 | @example | |
523 | @group | |
524 | (setq trees '(pine oak)) | |
525 | @result{} (pine oak) | |
526 | (setq more-trees (append '(maple birch) trees)) | |
527 | @result{} (maple birch pine oak) | |
528 | @end group | |
529 | ||
530 | @group | |
531 | trees | |
532 | @result{} (pine oak) | |
533 | more-trees | |
534 | @result{} (maple birch pine oak) | |
535 | @end group | |
536 | @group | |
537 | (eq trees (cdr (cdr more-trees))) | |
538 | @result{} t | |
539 | @end group | |
540 | @end example | |
541 | ||
7dd3d99f | 542 | You can see how @code{append} works by looking at a box diagram. The |
2b3fc6c3 RS |
543 | variable @code{trees} is set to the list @code{(pine oak)} and then the |
544 | variable @code{more-trees} is set to the list @code{(maple birch pine | |
545 | oak)}. However, the variable @code{trees} continues to refer to the | |
546 | original list: | |
73804d4b RS |
547 | |
548 | @smallexample | |
549 | @group | |
550 | more-trees trees | |
551 | | | | |
969fe9b5 RS |
552 | | --- --- --- --- -> --- --- --- --- |
553 | --> | | |--> | | |--> | | |--> | | |--> nil | |
554 | --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- | |
73804d4b RS |
555 | | | | | |
556 | | | | | | |
557 | --> maple -->birch --> pine --> oak | |
558 | @end group | |
559 | @end smallexample | |
560 | ||
7dd3d99f | 561 | An empty sequence contributes nothing to the value returned by |
73804d4b | 562 | @code{append}. As a consequence of this, a final @code{nil} argument |
7dd3d99f | 563 | forces a copy of the previous argument: |
73804d4b RS |
564 | |
565 | @example | |
566 | @group | |
567 | trees | |
568 | @result{} (pine oak) | |
569 | @end group | |
570 | @group | |
969fe9b5 | 571 | (setq wood (append trees nil)) |
73804d4b RS |
572 | @result{} (pine oak) |
573 | @end group | |
574 | @group | |
575 | wood | |
576 | @result{} (pine oak) | |
577 | @end group | |
578 | @group | |
579 | (eq wood trees) | |
580 | @result{} nil | |
581 | @end group | |
582 | @end example | |
583 | ||
584 | @noindent | |
585 | This once was the usual way to copy a list, before the function | |
586 | @code{copy-sequence} was invented. @xref{Sequences Arrays Vectors}. | |
587 | ||
7dd3d99f | 588 | Here we show the use of vectors and strings as arguments to @code{append}: |
969fe9b5 RS |
589 | |
590 | @example | |
591 | @group | |
592 | (append [a b] "cd" nil) | |
593 | @result{} (a b 99 100) | |
594 | @end group | |
595 | @end example | |
596 | ||
7dd3d99f | 597 | With the help of @code{apply} (@pxref{Calling Functions}), we can append |
a9f0a989 | 598 | all the lists in a list of lists: |
73804d4b RS |
599 | |
600 | @example | |
601 | @group | |
602 | (apply 'append '((a b c) nil (x y z) nil)) | |
603 | @result{} (a b c x y z) | |
604 | @end group | |
605 | @end example | |
606 | ||
7dd3d99f | 607 | If no @var{sequences} are given, @code{nil} is returned: |
73804d4b RS |
608 | |
609 | @example | |
610 | @group | |
611 | (append) | |
612 | @result{} nil | |
613 | @end group | |
614 | @end example | |
615 | ||
7dd3d99f | 616 | Here are some examples where the final argument is not a list: |
2b3fc6c3 RS |
617 | |
618 | @example | |
619 | (append '(x y) 'z) | |
bfe721d1 | 620 | @result{} (x y . z) |
2b3fc6c3 | 621 | (append '(x y) [z]) |
bfe721d1 | 622 | @result{} (x y . [z]) |
2b3fc6c3 RS |
623 | @end example |
624 | ||
625 | @noindent | |
626 | The second example shows that when the final argument is a sequence but | |
627 | not a list, the sequence's elements do not become elements of the | |
628 | resulting list. Instead, the sequence becomes the final @sc{cdr}, like | |
629 | any other non-list final argument. | |
73804d4b | 630 | |
73804d4b RS |
631 | @defun reverse list |
632 | This function creates a new list whose elements are the elements of | |
633 | @var{list}, but in reverse order. The original argument @var{list} is | |
634 | @emph{not} altered. | |
635 | ||
636 | @example | |
637 | @group | |
638 | (setq x '(1 2 3 4)) | |
639 | @result{} (1 2 3 4) | |
640 | @end group | |
641 | @group | |
642 | (reverse x) | |
643 | @result{} (4 3 2 1) | |
644 | x | |
645 | @result{} (1 2 3 4) | |
646 | @end group | |
647 | @end example | |
648 | @end defun | |
649 | ||
84c3f248 | 650 | @defun copy-tree tree &optional vecp |
948caddf | 651 | This function returns a copy of the tree @code{tree}. If @var{tree} is a |
84c3f248 RS |
652 | cons cell, this makes a new cons cell with the same @sc{car} and |
653 | @sc{cdr}, then recursively copies the @sc{car} and @sc{cdr} in the | |
654 | same way. | |
655 | ||
656 | Normally, when @var{tree} is anything other than a cons cell, | |
657 | @code{copy-tree} simply returns @var{tree}. However, if @var{vecp} is | |
658 | non-@code{nil}, it copies vectors too (and operates recursively on | |
659 | their elements). | |
660 | @end defun | |
661 | ||
19017752 LT |
662 | @defun number-sequence from &optional to separation |
663 | This returns a list of numbers starting with @var{from} and | |
664 | incrementing by @var{separation}, and ending at or just before | |
665 | @var{to}. @var{separation} can be positive or negative and defaults | |
666 | to 1. If @var{to} is @code{nil} or numerically equal to @var{from}, | |
23e69ab1 RS |
667 | the value is the one-element list @code{(@var{from})}. If @var{to} is |
668 | less than @var{from} with a positive @var{separation}, or greater than | |
669 | @var{from} with a negative @var{separation}, the value is @code{nil} | |
670 | because those arguments specify an empty sequence. | |
671 | ||
672 | If @var{separation} is 0 and @var{to} is neither @code{nil} nor | |
673 | numerically equal to @var{from}, @code{number-sequence} signals an | |
674 | error, since those arguments specify an infinite sequence. | |
19017752 LT |
675 | |
676 | All arguments can be integers or floating point numbers. However, | |
677 | floating point arguments can be tricky, because floating point | |
678 | arithmetic is inexact. For instance, depending on the machine, it may | |
679 | quite well happen that @code{(number-sequence 0.4 0.6 0.2)} returns | |
948caddf | 680 | the one element list @code{(0.4)}, whereas |
19017752 LT |
681 | @code{(number-sequence 0.4 0.8 0.2)} returns a list with three |
682 | elements. The @var{n}th element of the list is computed by the exact | |
683 | formula @code{(+ @var{from} (* @var{n} @var{separation}))}. Thus, if | |
684 | one wants to make sure that @var{to} is included in the list, one can | |
685 | pass an expression of this exact type for @var{to}. Alternatively, | |
686 | one can replace @var{to} with a slightly larger value (or a slightly | |
687 | more negative value if @var{separation} is negative). | |
688 | ||
689 | Some examples: | |
1006f206 RS |
690 | |
691 | @example | |
692 | (number-sequence 4 9) | |
693 | @result{} (4 5 6 7 8 9) | |
19017752 LT |
694 | (number-sequence 9 4 -1) |
695 | @result{} (9 8 7 6 5 4) | |
696 | (number-sequence 9 4 -2) | |
697 | @result{} (9 7 5) | |
698 | (number-sequence 8) | |
699 | @result{} (8) | |
700 | (number-sequence 8 5) | |
701 | @result{} nil | |
702 | (number-sequence 5 8 -1) | |
703 | @result{} nil | |
1006f206 RS |
704 | (number-sequence 1.5 6 2) |
705 | @result{} (1.5 3.5 5.5) | |
706 | @end example | |
707 | @end defun | |
708 | ||
73804d4b RS |
709 | @node Modifying Lists |
710 | @section Modifying Existing List Structure | |
f1e2c45e | 711 | @cindex destructive list operations |
73804d4b RS |
712 | |
713 | You can modify the @sc{car} and @sc{cdr} contents of a cons cell with the | |
177c0ea7 | 714 | primitives @code{setcar} and @code{setcdr}. We call these ``destructive'' |
f1e2c45e | 715 | operations because they change existing list structure. |
73804d4b | 716 | |
0ff13af9 | 717 | @cindex CL note---@code{rplaca} vs @code{setcar} |
73804d4b RS |
718 | @quotation |
719 | @findex rplaca | |
720 | @findex rplacd | |
721 | @b{Common Lisp note:} Common Lisp uses functions @code{rplaca} and | |
722 | @code{rplacd} to alter list structure; they change structure the same | |
723 | way as @code{setcar} and @code{setcdr}, but the Common Lisp functions | |
724 | return the cons cell while @code{setcar} and @code{setcdr} return the | |
725 | new @sc{car} or @sc{cdr}. | |
726 | @end quotation | |
727 | ||
728 | @menu | |
729 | * Setcar:: Replacing an element in a list. | |
730 | * Setcdr:: Replacing part of the list backbone. | |
731 | This can be used to remove or add elements. | |
732 | * Rearrangement:: Reordering the elements in a list; combining lists. | |
733 | @end menu | |
734 | ||
735 | @node Setcar | |
736 | @subsection Altering List Elements with @code{setcar} | |
737 | ||
2b3fc6c3 RS |
738 | Changing the @sc{car} of a cons cell is done with @code{setcar}. When |
739 | used on a list, @code{setcar} replaces one element of a list with a | |
740 | different element. | |
73804d4b RS |
741 | |
742 | @defun setcar cons object | |
743 | This function stores @var{object} as the new @sc{car} of @var{cons}, | |
74490e55 | 744 | replacing its previous @sc{car}. In other words, it changes the |
b6954afd | 745 | @sc{car} slot of @var{cons} to refer to @var{object}. It returns the |
74490e55 | 746 | value @var{object}. For example: |
73804d4b RS |
747 | |
748 | @example | |
749 | @group | |
750 | (setq x '(1 2)) | |
751 | @result{} (1 2) | |
752 | @end group | |
753 | @group | |
754 | (setcar x 4) | |
755 | @result{} 4 | |
756 | @end group | |
757 | @group | |
758 | x | |
759 | @result{} (4 2) | |
760 | @end group | |
761 | @end example | |
762 | @end defun | |
763 | ||
764 | When a cons cell is part of the shared structure of several lists, | |
765 | storing a new @sc{car} into the cons changes one element of each of | |
766 | these lists. Here is an example: | |
767 | ||
768 | @example | |
769 | @group | |
770 | ;; @r{Create two lists that are partly shared.} | |
771 | (setq x1 '(a b c)) | |
772 | @result{} (a b c) | |
773 | (setq x2 (cons 'z (cdr x1))) | |
774 | @result{} (z b c) | |
775 | @end group | |
776 | ||
777 | @group | |
778 | ;; @r{Replace the @sc{car} of a shared link.} | |
779 | (setcar (cdr x1) 'foo) | |
780 | @result{} foo | |
781 | x1 ; @r{Both lists are changed.} | |
782 | @result{} (a foo c) | |
783 | x2 | |
784 | @result{} (z foo c) | |
785 | @end group | |
786 | ||
787 | @group | |
788 | ;; @r{Replace the @sc{car} of a link that is not shared.} | |
789 | (setcar x1 'baz) | |
790 | @result{} baz | |
791 | x1 ; @r{Only one list is changed.} | |
792 | @result{} (baz foo c) | |
793 | x2 | |
794 | @result{} (z foo c) | |
795 | @end group | |
796 | @end example | |
797 | ||
798 | Here is a graphical depiction of the shared structure of the two lists | |
799 | in the variables @code{x1} and @code{x2}, showing why replacing @code{b} | |
800 | changes them both: | |
801 | ||
802 | @example | |
803 | @group | |
969fe9b5 RS |
804 | --- --- --- --- --- --- |
805 | x1---> | | |----> | | |--> | | |--> nil | |
806 | --- --- --- --- --- --- | |
73804d4b RS |
807 | | --> | | |
808 | | | | | | |
809 | --> a | --> b --> c | |
810 | | | |
969fe9b5 RS |
811 | --- --- | |
812 | x2--> | | |-- | |
813 | --- --- | |
73804d4b RS |
814 | | |
815 | | | |
816 | --> z | |
817 | @end group | |
818 | @end example | |
819 | ||
820 | Here is an alternative form of box diagram, showing the same relationship: | |
821 | ||
822 | @example | |
823 | @group | |
824 | x1: | |
825 | -------------- -------------- -------------- | |
826 | | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | |
827 | | a | o------->| b | o------->| c | nil | | |
828 | | | | -->| | | | | | | |
829 | -------------- | -------------- -------------- | |
830 | | | |
831 | x2: | | |
832 | -------------- | | |
833 | | car | cdr | | | |
834 | | z | o---- | |
835 | | | | | |
836 | -------------- | |
837 | @end group | |
838 | @end example | |
839 | ||
840 | @node Setcdr | |
841 | @subsection Altering the CDR of a List | |
842 | ||
843 | The lowest-level primitive for modifying a @sc{cdr} is @code{setcdr}: | |
844 | ||
845 | @defun setcdr cons object | |
2b3fc6c3 | 846 | This function stores @var{object} as the new @sc{cdr} of @var{cons}, |
74490e55 | 847 | replacing its previous @sc{cdr}. In other words, it changes the |
b6954afd | 848 | @sc{cdr} slot of @var{cons} to refer to @var{object}. It returns the |
74490e55 | 849 | value @var{object}. |
73804d4b RS |
850 | @end defun |
851 | ||
852 | Here is an example of replacing the @sc{cdr} of a list with a | |
853 | different list. All but the first element of the list are removed in | |
854 | favor of a different sequence of elements. The first element is | |
855 | unchanged, because it resides in the @sc{car} of the list, and is not | |
856 | reached via the @sc{cdr}. | |
857 | ||
858 | @example | |
859 | @group | |
860 | (setq x '(1 2 3)) | |
861 | @result{} (1 2 3) | |
862 | @end group | |
863 | @group | |
864 | (setcdr x '(4)) | |
865 | @result{} (4) | |
866 | @end group | |
867 | @group | |
868 | x | |
869 | @result{} (1 4) | |
870 | @end group | |
871 | @end example | |
872 | ||
873 | You can delete elements from the middle of a list by altering the | |
874 | @sc{cdr}s of the cons cells in the list. For example, here we delete | |
875 | the second element, @code{b}, from the list @code{(a b c)}, by changing | |
74490e55 | 876 | the @sc{cdr} of the first cons cell: |
73804d4b RS |
877 | |
878 | @example | |
879 | @group | |
880 | (setq x1 '(a b c)) | |
881 | @result{} (a b c) | |
882 | (setcdr x1 (cdr (cdr x1))) | |
883 | @result{} (c) | |
884 | x1 | |
885 | @result{} (a c) | |
886 | @end group | |
887 | @end example | |
888 | ||
bda144f4 | 889 | @need 4000 |
73804d4b RS |
890 | Here is the result in box notation: |
891 | ||
892 | @example | |
893 | @group | |
894 | -------------------- | |
895 | | | | |
896 | -------------- | -------------- | -------------- | |
897 | | car | cdr | | | car | cdr | -->| car | cdr | | |
898 | | a | o----- | b | o-------->| c | nil | | |
899 | | | | | | | | | | | |
900 | -------------- -------------- -------------- | |
901 | @end group | |
902 | @end example | |
903 | ||
904 | @noindent | |
905 | The second cons cell, which previously held the element @code{b}, still | |
906 | exists and its @sc{car} is still @code{b}, but it no longer forms part | |
907 | of this list. | |
908 | ||
909 | It is equally easy to insert a new element by changing @sc{cdr}s: | |
910 | ||
911 | @example | |
912 | @group | |
913 | (setq x1 '(a b c)) | |
914 | @result{} (a b c) | |
915 | (setcdr x1 (cons 'd (cdr x1))) | |
916 | @result{} (d b c) | |
917 | x1 | |
918 | @result{} (a d b c) | |
919 | @end group | |
920 | @end example | |
921 | ||
922 | Here is this result in box notation: | |
923 | ||
924 | @smallexample | |
925 | @group | |
926 | -------------- ------------- ------------- | |
927 | | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | |
928 | | a | o | -->| b | o------->| c | nil | | |
929 | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
930 | --------- | -- | ------------- ------------- | |
931 | | | | |
932 | ----- -------- | |
933 | | | | |
934 | | --------------- | | |
935 | | | car | cdr | | | |
936 | -->| d | o------ | |
937 | | | | | |
938 | --------------- | |
939 | @end group | |
940 | @end smallexample | |
941 | ||
942 | @node Rearrangement | |
943 | @subsection Functions that Rearrange Lists | |
944 | @cindex rearrangement of lists | |
945 | @cindex modification of lists | |
946 | ||
947 | Here are some functions that rearrange lists ``destructively'' by | |
948 | modifying the @sc{cdr}s of their component cons cells. We call these | |
949 | functions ``destructive'' because they chew up the original lists passed | |
f1e2c45e RS |
950 | to them as arguments, relinking their cons cells to form a new list that |
951 | is the returned value. | |
73804d4b | 952 | |
37680279 | 953 | @ifnottex |
2b3fc6c3 RS |
954 | See @code{delq}, in @ref{Sets And Lists}, for another function |
955 | that modifies cons cells. | |
37680279 | 956 | @end ifnottex |
2b3fc6c3 RS |
957 | @iftex |
958 | The function @code{delq} in the following section is another example | |
959 | of destructive list manipulation. | |
960 | @end iftex | |
961 | ||
73804d4b RS |
962 | @defun nconc &rest lists |
963 | @cindex concatenating lists | |
964 | @cindex joining lists | |
965 | This function returns a list containing all the elements of @var{lists}. | |
966 | Unlike @code{append} (@pxref{Building Lists}), the @var{lists} are | |
967 | @emph{not} copied. Instead, the last @sc{cdr} of each of the | |
968 | @var{lists} is changed to refer to the following list. The last of the | |
969 | @var{lists} is not altered. For example: | |
970 | ||
971 | @example | |
972 | @group | |
973 | (setq x '(1 2 3)) | |
974 | @result{} (1 2 3) | |
975 | @end group | |
976 | @group | |
977 | (nconc x '(4 5)) | |
978 | @result{} (1 2 3 4 5) | |
979 | @end group | |
980 | @group | |
981 | x | |
982 | @result{} (1 2 3 4 5) | |
983 | @end group | |
984 | @end example | |
985 | ||
986 | Since the last argument of @code{nconc} is not itself modified, it is | |
987 | reasonable to use a constant list, such as @code{'(4 5)}, as in the | |
988 | above example. For the same reason, the last argument need not be a | |
989 | list: | |
990 | ||
991 | @example | |
992 | @group | |
993 | (setq x '(1 2 3)) | |
994 | @result{} (1 2 3) | |
995 | @end group | |
996 | @group | |
997 | (nconc x 'z) | |
998 | @result{} (1 2 3 . z) | |
999 | @end group | |
1000 | @group | |
1001 | x | |
1002 | @result{} (1 2 3 . z) | |
1003 | @end group | |
1004 | @end example | |
1005 | ||
969fe9b5 RS |
1006 | However, the other arguments (all but the last) must be lists. |
1007 | ||
73804d4b RS |
1008 | A common pitfall is to use a quoted constant list as a non-last |
1009 | argument to @code{nconc}. If you do this, your program will change | |
1010 | each time you run it! Here is what happens: | |
1011 | ||
1012 | @smallexample | |
1013 | @group | |
1014 | (defun add-foo (x) ; @r{We want this function to add} | |
1015 | (nconc '(foo) x)) ; @r{@code{foo} to the front of its arg.} | |
1016 | @end group | |
1017 | ||
1018 | @group | |
1019 | (symbol-function 'add-foo) | |
1020 | @result{} (lambda (x) (nconc (quote (foo)) x)) | |
1021 | @end group | |
1022 | ||
1023 | @group | |
1024 | (setq xx (add-foo '(1 2))) ; @r{It seems to work.} | |
1025 | @result{} (foo 1 2) | |
1026 | @end group | |
1027 | @group | |
1028 | (setq xy (add-foo '(3 4))) ; @r{What happened?} | |
1029 | @result{} (foo 1 2 3 4) | |
1030 | @end group | |
1031 | @group | |
1032 | (eq xx xy) | |
1033 | @result{} t | |
1034 | @end group | |
1035 | ||
1036 | @group | |
1037 | (symbol-function 'add-foo) | |
1038 | @result{} (lambda (x) (nconc (quote (foo 1 2 3 4) x))) | |
1039 | @end group | |
1040 | @end smallexample | |
1041 | @end defun | |
1042 | ||
1043 | @defun nreverse list | |
1044 | @cindex reversing a list | |
1045 | This function reverses the order of the elements of @var{list}. | |
2b3fc6c3 RS |
1046 | Unlike @code{reverse}, @code{nreverse} alters its argument by reversing |
1047 | the @sc{cdr}s in the cons cells forming the list. The cons cell that | |
74490e55 | 1048 | used to be the last one in @var{list} becomes the first cons cell of the |
2b3fc6c3 | 1049 | value. |
73804d4b RS |
1050 | |
1051 | For example: | |
1052 | ||
1053 | @example | |
1054 | @group | |
a9749dab RS |
1055 | (setq x '(a b c)) |
1056 | @result{} (a b c) | |
73804d4b RS |
1057 | @end group |
1058 | @group | |
1059 | x | |
a9749dab | 1060 | @result{} (a b c) |
73804d4b | 1061 | (nreverse x) |
a9749dab | 1062 | @result{} (c b a) |
73804d4b RS |
1063 | @end group |
1064 | @group | |
74490e55 | 1065 | ;; @r{The cons cell that was first is now last.} |
73804d4b | 1066 | x |
a9749dab | 1067 | @result{} (a) |
73804d4b RS |
1068 | @end group |
1069 | @end example | |
1070 | ||
1071 | To avoid confusion, we usually store the result of @code{nreverse} | |
1072 | back in the same variable which held the original list: | |
1073 | ||
1074 | @example | |
1075 | (setq x (nreverse x)) | |
1076 | @end example | |
1077 | ||
1078 | Here is the @code{nreverse} of our favorite example, @code{(a b c)}, | |
1079 | presented graphically: | |
1080 | ||
1081 | @smallexample | |
1082 | @group | |
1083 | @r{Original list head:} @r{Reversed list:} | |
1084 | ------------- ------------- ------------ | |
1085 | | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | |
1086 | | a | nil |<-- | b | o |<-- | c | o | | |
1087 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
1088 | ------------- | --------- | - | -------- | - | |
1089 | | | | | | |
1090 | ------------- ------------ | |
1091 | @end group | |
1092 | @end smallexample | |
1093 | @end defun | |
1094 | ||
1095 | @defun sort list predicate | |
1096 | @cindex stable sort | |
1097 | @cindex sorting lists | |
1098 | This function sorts @var{list} stably, though destructively, and | |
1099 | returns the sorted list. It compares elements using @var{predicate}. A | |
1100 | stable sort is one in which elements with equal sort keys maintain their | |
1101 | relative order before and after the sort. Stability is important when | |
1102 | successive sorts are used to order elements according to different | |
1103 | criteria. | |
1104 | ||
1105 | The argument @var{predicate} must be a function that accepts two | |
1106 | arguments. It is called with two elements of @var{list}. To get an | |
c72c5004 | 1107 | increasing order sort, the @var{predicate} should return non-@code{nil} if the |
73804d4b RS |
1108 | first element is ``less than'' the second, or @code{nil} if not. |
1109 | ||
a9f0a989 RS |
1110 | The comparison function @var{predicate} must give reliable results for |
1111 | any given pair of arguments, at least within a single call to | |
1112 | @code{sort}. It must be @dfn{antisymmetric}; that is, if @var{a} is | |
1113 | less than @var{b}, @var{b} must not be less than @var{a}. It must be | |
1114 | @dfn{transitive}---that is, if @var{a} is less than @var{b}, and @var{b} | |
1115 | is less than @var{c}, then @var{a} must be less than @var{c}. If you | |
1116 | use a comparison function which does not meet these requirements, the | |
1117 | result of @code{sort} is unpredictable. | |
1118 | ||
73804d4b RS |
1119 | The destructive aspect of @code{sort} is that it rearranges the cons |
1120 | cells forming @var{list} by changing @sc{cdr}s. A nondestructive sort | |
1121 | function would create new cons cells to store the elements in their | |
1122 | sorted order. If you wish to make a sorted copy without destroying the | |
1123 | original, copy it first with @code{copy-sequence} and then sort. | |
1124 | ||
1125 | Sorting does not change the @sc{car}s of the cons cells in @var{list}; | |
1126 | the cons cell that originally contained the element @code{a} in | |
1127 | @var{list} still has @code{a} in its @sc{car} after sorting, but it now | |
1128 | appears in a different position in the list due to the change of | |
1129 | @sc{cdr}s. For example: | |
1130 | ||
1131 | @example | |
1132 | @group | |
1133 | (setq nums '(1 3 2 6 5 4 0)) | |
1134 | @result{} (1 3 2 6 5 4 0) | |
1135 | @end group | |
1136 | @group | |
1137 | (sort nums '<) | |
1138 | @result{} (0 1 2 3 4 5 6) | |
1139 | @end group | |
1140 | @group | |
1141 | nums | |
1142 | @result{} (1 2 3 4 5 6) | |
1143 | @end group | |
1144 | @end example | |
1145 | ||
1146 | @noindent | |
f9f59935 RS |
1147 | @strong{Warning}: Note that the list in @code{nums} no longer contains |
1148 | 0; this is the same cons cell that it was before, but it is no longer | |
1149 | the first one in the list. Don't assume a variable that formerly held | |
1150 | the argument now holds the entire sorted list! Instead, save the result | |
1151 | of @code{sort} and use that. Most often we store the result back into | |
1152 | the variable that held the original list: | |
73804d4b RS |
1153 | |
1154 | @example | |
1155 | (setq nums (sort nums '<)) | |
1156 | @end example | |
1157 | ||
1158 | @xref{Sorting}, for more functions that perform sorting. | |
1159 | See @code{documentation} in @ref{Accessing Documentation}, for a | |
1160 | useful example of @code{sort}. | |
1161 | @end defun | |
1162 | ||
73804d4b RS |
1163 | @node Sets And Lists |
1164 | @section Using Lists as Sets | |
1165 | @cindex lists as sets | |
1166 | @cindex sets | |
1167 | ||
1168 | A list can represent an unordered mathematical set---simply consider a | |
1169 | value an element of a set if it appears in the list, and ignore the | |
1170 | order of the list. To form the union of two sets, use @code{append} (as | |
42101e87 LT |
1171 | long as you don't mind having duplicate elements). You can remove |
1172 | @code{equal} duplicates using @code{delete-dups}. Other useful | |
73804d4b RS |
1173 | functions for sets include @code{memq} and @code{delq}, and their |
1174 | @code{equal} versions, @code{member} and @code{delete}. | |
1175 | ||
b5ef0e92 | 1176 | @cindex CL note---lack @code{union}, @code{intersection} |
73804d4b RS |
1177 | @quotation |
1178 | @b{Common Lisp note:} Common Lisp has functions @code{union} (which | |
1179 | avoids duplicate elements) and @code{intersection} for set operations, | |
1180 | but GNU Emacs Lisp does not have them. You can write them in Lisp if | |
1181 | you wish. | |
1182 | @end quotation | |
1183 | ||
1184 | @defun memq object list | |
1185 | @cindex membership in a list | |
1186 | This function tests to see whether @var{object} is a member of | |
1187 | @var{list}. If it is, @code{memq} returns a list starting with the | |
1188 | first occurrence of @var{object}. Otherwise, it returns @code{nil}. | |
1189 | The letter @samp{q} in @code{memq} says that it uses @code{eq} to | |
1190 | compare @var{object} against the elements of the list. For example: | |
1191 | ||
1192 | @example | |
1193 | @group | |
2b3fc6c3 RS |
1194 | (memq 'b '(a b c b a)) |
1195 | @result{} (b c b a) | |
73804d4b RS |
1196 | @end group |
1197 | @group | |
1198 | (memq '(2) '((1) (2))) ; @r{@code{(2)} and @code{(2)} are not @code{eq}.} | |
1199 | @result{} nil | |
1200 | @end group | |
1201 | @end example | |
1202 | @end defun | |
1203 | ||
1204 | @defun delq object list | |
1205 | @cindex deletion of elements | |
1206 | This function destructively removes all elements @code{eq} to | |
1207 | @var{object} from @var{list}. The letter @samp{q} in @code{delq} says | |
1208 | that it uses @code{eq} to compare @var{object} against the elements of | |
f68446ef | 1209 | the list, like @code{memq} and @code{remq}. |
73804d4b RS |
1210 | @end defun |
1211 | ||
1212 | When @code{delq} deletes elements from the front of the list, it does so | |
1213 | simply by advancing down the list and returning a sublist that starts | |
1214 | after those elements: | |
1215 | ||
1216 | @example | |
1217 | @group | |
1218 | (delq 'a '(a b c)) @equiv{} (cdr '(a b c)) | |
1219 | @end group | |
1220 | @end example | |
1221 | ||
1222 | When an element to be deleted appears in the middle of the list, | |
1223 | removing it involves changing the @sc{cdr}s (@pxref{Setcdr}). | |
1224 | ||
1225 | @example | |
1226 | @group | |
2b3fc6c3 RS |
1227 | (setq sample-list '(a b c (4))) |
1228 | @result{} (a b c (4)) | |
73804d4b RS |
1229 | @end group |
1230 | @group | |
2b3fc6c3 RS |
1231 | (delq 'a sample-list) |
1232 | @result{} (b c (4)) | |
73804d4b RS |
1233 | @end group |
1234 | @group | |
1235 | sample-list | |
2b3fc6c3 | 1236 | @result{} (a b c (4)) |
73804d4b RS |
1237 | @end group |
1238 | @group | |
2b3fc6c3 | 1239 | (delq 'c sample-list) |
34e1af81 | 1240 | @result{} (a b (4)) |
73804d4b RS |
1241 | @end group |
1242 | @group | |
1243 | sample-list | |
34e1af81 | 1244 | @result{} (a b (4)) |
73804d4b RS |
1245 | @end group |
1246 | @end example | |
1247 | ||
bfe721d1 KH |
1248 | Note that @code{(delq 'c sample-list)} modifies @code{sample-list} to |
1249 | splice out the third element, but @code{(delq 'a sample-list)} does not | |
73804d4b RS |
1250 | splice anything---it just returns a shorter list. Don't assume that a |
1251 | variable which formerly held the argument @var{list} now has fewer | |
1252 | elements, or that it still holds the original list! Instead, save the | |
1253 | result of @code{delq} and use that. Most often we store the result back | |
1254 | into the variable that held the original list: | |
1255 | ||
1256 | @example | |
1257 | (setq flowers (delq 'rose flowers)) | |
1258 | @end example | |
1259 | ||
1260 | In the following example, the @code{(4)} that @code{delq} attempts to match | |
1261 | and the @code{(4)} in the @code{sample-list} are not @code{eq}: | |
1262 | ||
1263 | @example | |
1264 | @group | |
1265 | (delq '(4) sample-list) | |
2b3fc6c3 | 1266 | @result{} (a c (4)) |
73804d4b RS |
1267 | @end group |
1268 | @end example | |
1269 | ||
9f081286 RS |
1270 | @defun remq object list |
1271 | This function returns a copy of @var{list}, with all elements removed | |
1272 | which are @code{eq} to @var{object}. The letter @samp{q} in @code{remq} | |
1273 | says that it uses @code{eq} to compare @var{object} against the elements | |
1274 | of @code{list}. | |
1275 | ||
1276 | @example | |
1277 | @group | |
1278 | (setq sample-list '(a b c a b c)) | |
1279 | @result{} (a b c a b c) | |
1280 | @end group | |
1281 | @group | |
1282 | (remq 'a sample-list) | |
1283 | @result{} (b c b c) | |
1284 | @end group | |
1285 | @group | |
1286 | sample-list | |
1287 | @result{} (a b c a b c) | |
1288 | @end group | |
1289 | @end example | |
1290 | @noindent | |
1291 | The function @code{delq} offers a way to perform this operation | |
1292 | destructively. See @ref{Sets And Lists}. | |
1293 | @end defun | |
1294 | ||
1295 | The following three functions are like @code{memq}, @code{delq} and | |
1296 | @code{remq}, but use @code{equal} rather than @code{eq} to compare | |
1297 | elements. @xref{Equality Predicates}. | |
73804d4b RS |
1298 | |
1299 | @defun member object list | |
1300 | The function @code{member} tests to see whether @var{object} is a member | |
1301 | of @var{list}, comparing members with @var{object} using @code{equal}. | |
1302 | If @var{object} is a member, @code{member} returns a list starting with | |
1303 | its first occurrence in @var{list}. Otherwise, it returns @code{nil}. | |
1304 | ||
1305 | Compare this with @code{memq}: | |
1306 | ||
1307 | @example | |
1308 | @group | |
1309 | (member '(2) '((1) (2))) ; @r{@code{(2)} and @code{(2)} are @code{equal}.} | |
1310 | @result{} ((2)) | |
1311 | @end group | |
1312 | @group | |
1313 | (memq '(2) '((1) (2))) ; @r{@code{(2)} and @code{(2)} are not @code{eq}.} | |
1314 | @result{} nil | |
1315 | @end group | |
1316 | @group | |
1317 | ;; @r{Two strings with the same contents are @code{equal}.} | |
1318 | (member "foo" '("foo" "bar")) | |
1319 | @result{} ("foo" "bar") | |
1320 | @end group | |
1321 | @end example | |
1322 | @end defun | |
1323 | ||
f68446ef GM |
1324 | @defun delete object sequence |
1325 | If @code{sequence} is a list, this function destructively removes all | |
1326 | elements @code{equal} to @var{object} from @var{sequence}. For lists, | |
1327 | @code{delete} is to @code{delq} as @code{member} is to @code{memq}: it | |
1328 | uses @code{equal} to compare elements with @var{object}, like | |
1329 | @code{member}; when it finds an element that matches, it removes the | |
1330 | element just as @code{delq} would. | |
1331 | ||
1332 | If @code{sequence} is a vector or string, @code{delete} returns a copy | |
1333 | of @code{sequence} with all elements @code{equal} to @code{object} | |
1334 | removed. | |
1335 | ||
1336 | For example: | |
73804d4b RS |
1337 | |
1338 | @example | |
1339 | @group | |
1340 | (delete '(2) '((2) (1) (2))) | |
b5ef0e92 | 1341 | @result{} ((1)) |
73804d4b | 1342 | @end group |
f68446ef GM |
1343 | @group |
1344 | (delete '(2) [(2) (1) (2)]) | |
1345 | @result{} [(1)] | |
1346 | @end group | |
1347 | @end example | |
1348 | @end defun | |
1349 | ||
1350 | @defun remove object sequence | |
1351 | This function is the non-destructive counterpart of @code{delete}. If | |
1352 | returns a copy of @code{sequence}, a list, vector, or string, with | |
1353 | elements @code{equal} to @code{object} removed. For example: | |
1354 | ||
1355 | @example | |
1356 | @group | |
1357 | (remove '(2) '((2) (1) (2))) | |
1358 | @result{} ((1)) | |
1359 | @end group | |
1360 | @group | |
1361 | (remove '(2) [(2) (1) (2)]) | |
1362 | @result{} [(1)] | |
1363 | @end group | |
73804d4b RS |
1364 | @end example |
1365 | @end defun | |
1366 | ||
1367 | @quotation | |
f68446ef GM |
1368 | @b{Common Lisp note:} The functions @code{member}, @code{delete} and |
1369 | @code{remove} in GNU Emacs Lisp are derived from Maclisp, not Common | |
1370 | Lisp. The Common Lisp versions do not use @code{equal} to compare | |
1371 | elements. | |
73804d4b RS |
1372 | @end quotation |
1373 | ||
19017752 LT |
1374 | @defun member-ignore-case object list |
1375 | This function is like @code{member}, except that @var{object} should | |
1376 | be a string and that it ignores differences in letter-case and text | |
1377 | representation: upper-case and lower-case letters are treated as | |
1378 | equal, and unibyte strings are converted to multibyte prior to | |
1379 | comparison. | |
42101e87 LT |
1380 | @end defun |
1381 | ||
1382 | @defun delete-dups list | |
1383 | This function destructively removes all @code{equal} duplicates from | |
efb47843 LT |
1384 | @var{list}, stores the result in @var{list} and returns it. Of |
1385 | several @code{equal} occurrences of an element in @var{list}, | |
1386 | @code{delete-dups} keeps the first one. | |
19017752 LT |
1387 | @end defun |
1388 | ||
bfe721d1 KH |
1389 | See also the function @code{add-to-list}, in @ref{Setting Variables}, |
1390 | for another way to add an element to a list stored in a variable. | |
1391 | ||
73804d4b RS |
1392 | @node Association Lists |
1393 | @section Association Lists | |
1394 | @cindex association list | |
1395 | @cindex alist | |
1396 | ||
1397 | An @dfn{association list}, or @dfn{alist} for short, records a mapping | |
1398 | from keys to values. It is a list of cons cells called | |
74490e55 | 1399 | @dfn{associations}: the @sc{car} of each cons cell is the @dfn{key}, and the |
73804d4b RS |
1400 | @sc{cdr} is the @dfn{associated value}.@footnote{This usage of ``key'' |
1401 | is not related to the term ``key sequence''; it means a value used to | |
1402 | look up an item in a table. In this case, the table is the alist, and | |
1403 | the alist associations are the items.} | |
1404 | ||
1405 | Here is an example of an alist. The key @code{pine} is associated with | |
1406 | the value @code{cones}; the key @code{oak} is associated with | |
1407 | @code{acorns}; and the key @code{maple} is associated with @code{seeds}. | |
1408 | ||
1409 | @example | |
1410 | @group | |
a9749dab RS |
1411 | ((pine . cones) |
1412 | (oak . acorns) | |
1413 | (maple . seeds)) | |
73804d4b RS |
1414 | @end group |
1415 | @end example | |
1416 | ||
1417 | The associated values in an alist may be any Lisp objects; so may the | |
1418 | keys. For example, in the following alist, the symbol @code{a} is | |
1419 | associated with the number @code{1}, and the string @code{"b"} is | |
1420 | associated with the @emph{list} @code{(2 3)}, which is the @sc{cdr} of | |
1421 | the alist element: | |
1422 | ||
1423 | @example | |
1424 | ((a . 1) ("b" 2 3)) | |
1425 | @end example | |
1426 | ||
1427 | Sometimes it is better to design an alist to store the associated | |
1428 | value in the @sc{car} of the @sc{cdr} of the element. Here is an | |
a9749dab | 1429 | example of such an alist: |
73804d4b RS |
1430 | |
1431 | @example | |
a9749dab | 1432 | ((rose red) (lily white) (buttercup yellow)) |
73804d4b RS |
1433 | @end example |
1434 | ||
1435 | @noindent | |
1436 | Here we regard @code{red} as the value associated with @code{rose}. One | |
f9f59935 | 1437 | advantage of this kind of alist is that you can store other related |
73804d4b RS |
1438 | information---even a list of other items---in the @sc{cdr} of the |
1439 | @sc{cdr}. One disadvantage is that you cannot use @code{rassq} (see | |
1440 | below) to find the element containing a given value. When neither of | |
1441 | these considerations is important, the choice is a matter of taste, as | |
1442 | long as you are consistent about it for any given alist. | |
1443 | ||
1444 | Note that the same alist shown above could be regarded as having the | |
1445 | associated value in the @sc{cdr} of the element; the value associated | |
1446 | with @code{rose} would be the list @code{(red)}. | |
1447 | ||
1448 | Association lists are often used to record information that you might | |
1449 | otherwise keep on a stack, since new associations may be added easily to | |
1450 | the front of the list. When searching an association list for an | |
1451 | association with a given key, the first one found is returned, if there | |
1452 | is more than one. | |
1453 | ||
1454 | In Emacs Lisp, it is @emph{not} an error if an element of an | |
1455 | association list is not a cons cell. The alist search functions simply | |
1456 | ignore such elements. Many other versions of Lisp signal errors in such | |
1457 | cases. | |
1458 | ||
1459 | Note that property lists are similar to association lists in several | |
1460 | respects. A property list behaves like an association list in which | |
1461 | each key can occur only once. @xref{Property Lists}, for a comparison | |
1462 | of property lists and association lists. | |
1463 | ||
1464 | @defun assoc key alist | |
1465 | This function returns the first association for @var{key} in | |
1466 | @var{alist}. It compares @var{key} against the alist elements using | |
1467 | @code{equal} (@pxref{Equality Predicates}). It returns @code{nil} if no | |
1468 | association in @var{alist} has a @sc{car} @code{equal} to @var{key}. | |
1469 | For example: | |
1470 | ||
1471 | @smallexample | |
1472 | (setq trees '((pine . cones) (oak . acorns) (maple . seeds))) | |
1473 | @result{} ((pine . cones) (oak . acorns) (maple . seeds)) | |
1474 | (assoc 'oak trees) | |
1475 | @result{} (oak . acorns) | |
1476 | (cdr (assoc 'oak trees)) | |
1477 | @result{} acorns | |
1478 | (assoc 'birch trees) | |
1479 | @result{} nil | |
1480 | @end smallexample | |
1481 | ||
2b3fc6c3 | 1482 | Here is another example, in which the keys and values are not symbols: |
73804d4b RS |
1483 | |
1484 | @smallexample | |
1485 | (setq needles-per-cluster | |
1486 | '((2 "Austrian Pine" "Red Pine") | |
1487 | (3 "Pitch Pine") | |
1488 | (5 "White Pine"))) | |
1489 | ||
1490 | (cdr (assoc 3 needles-per-cluster)) | |
1491 | @result{} ("Pitch Pine") | |
1492 | (cdr (assoc 2 needles-per-cluster)) | |
1493 | @result{} ("Austrian Pine" "Red Pine") | |
1494 | @end smallexample | |
1495 | @end defun | |
1496 | ||
9f081286 RS |
1497 | The function @code{assoc-string} is much like @code{assoc} except |
1498 | that it ignores certain differences between strings. @xref{Text | |
1499 | Comparison}. | |
a9f0a989 | 1500 | |
22697dac KH |
1501 | @defun rassoc value alist |
1502 | This function returns the first association with value @var{value} in | |
1503 | @var{alist}. It returns @code{nil} if no association in @var{alist} has | |
1504 | a @sc{cdr} @code{equal} to @var{value}. | |
1505 | ||
1506 | @code{rassoc} is like @code{assoc} except that it compares the @sc{cdr} of | |
1507 | each @var{alist} association instead of the @sc{car}. You can think of | |
1508 | this as ``reverse @code{assoc}'', finding the key for a given value. | |
1509 | @end defun | |
1510 | ||
73804d4b RS |
1511 | @defun assq key alist |
1512 | This function is like @code{assoc} in that it returns the first | |
1513 | association for @var{key} in @var{alist}, but it makes the comparison | |
1514 | using @code{eq} instead of @code{equal}. @code{assq} returns @code{nil} | |
1515 | if no association in @var{alist} has a @sc{car} @code{eq} to @var{key}. | |
1516 | This function is used more often than @code{assoc}, since @code{eq} is | |
1517 | faster than @code{equal} and most alists use symbols as keys. | |
1518 | @xref{Equality Predicates}. | |
1519 | ||
1520 | @smallexample | |
1521 | (setq trees '((pine . cones) (oak . acorns) (maple . seeds))) | |
1522 | @result{} ((pine . cones) (oak . acorns) (maple . seeds)) | |
1523 | (assq 'pine trees) | |
1524 | @result{} (pine . cones) | |
1525 | @end smallexample | |
1526 | ||
1527 | On the other hand, @code{assq} is not usually useful in alists where the | |
1528 | keys may not be symbols: | |
1529 | ||
1530 | @smallexample | |
1531 | (setq leaves | |
1532 | '(("simple leaves" . oak) | |
1533 | ("compound leaves" . horsechestnut))) | |
1534 | ||
1535 | (assq "simple leaves" leaves) | |
1536 | @result{} nil | |
1537 | (assoc "simple leaves" leaves) | |
1538 | @result{} ("simple leaves" . oak) | |
1539 | @end smallexample | |
1540 | @end defun | |
1541 | ||
1542 | @defun rassq value alist | |
1543 | This function returns the first association with value @var{value} in | |
1544 | @var{alist}. It returns @code{nil} if no association in @var{alist} has | |
1545 | a @sc{cdr} @code{eq} to @var{value}. | |
1546 | ||
1547 | @code{rassq} is like @code{assq} except that it compares the @sc{cdr} of | |
1548 | each @var{alist} association instead of the @sc{car}. You can think of | |
1549 | this as ``reverse @code{assq}'', finding the key for a given value. | |
1550 | ||
1551 | For example: | |
1552 | ||
1553 | @smallexample | |
1554 | (setq trees '((pine . cones) (oak . acorns) (maple . seeds))) | |
1555 | ||
1556 | (rassq 'acorns trees) | |
1557 | @result{} (oak . acorns) | |
1558 | (rassq 'spores trees) | |
1559 | @result{} nil | |
1560 | @end smallexample | |
1561 | ||
1562 | Note that @code{rassq} cannot search for a value stored in the @sc{car} | |
1563 | of the @sc{cdr} of an element: | |
1564 | ||
1565 | @smallexample | |
1566 | (setq colors '((rose red) (lily white) (buttercup yellow))) | |
1567 | ||
1568 | (rassq 'white colors) | |
1569 | @result{} nil | |
1570 | @end smallexample | |
1571 | ||
1572 | In this case, the @sc{cdr} of the association @code{(lily white)} is not | |
1573 | the symbol @code{white}, but rather the list @code{(white)}. This | |
1574 | becomes clearer if the association is written in dotted pair notation: | |
1575 | ||
1576 | @smallexample | |
1577 | (lily white) @equiv{} (lily . (white)) | |
1578 | @end smallexample | |
1579 | @end defun | |
1580 | ||
a9749dab | 1581 | @defun assoc-default key alist &optional test default |
a46dba07 RS |
1582 | This function searches @var{alist} for a match for @var{key}. For each |
1583 | element of @var{alist}, it compares the element (if it is an atom) or | |
1584 | the element's @sc{car} (if it is a cons) against @var{key}, by calling | |
1585 | @var{test} with two arguments: the element or its @sc{car}, and | |
1586 | @var{key}. The arguments are passed in that order so that you can get | |
1587 | useful results using @code{string-match} with an alist that contains | |
1588 | regular expressions (@pxref{Regexp Search}). If @var{test} is omitted | |
1589 | or @code{nil}, @code{equal} is used for comparison. | |
1590 | ||
1591 | If an alist element matches @var{key} by this criterion, | |
1592 | then @code{assoc-default} returns a value based on this element. | |
1593 | If the element is a cons, then the value is the element's @sc{cdr}. | |
1594 | Otherwise, the return value is @var{default}. | |
1595 | ||
1596 | If no alist element matches @var{key}, @code{assoc-default} returns | |
1597 | @code{nil}. | |
1598 | @end defun | |
1599 | ||
73804d4b RS |
1600 | @defun copy-alist alist |
1601 | @cindex copying alists | |
1602 | This function returns a two-level deep copy of @var{alist}: it creates a | |
1603 | new copy of each association, so that you can alter the associations of | |
1604 | the new alist without changing the old one. | |
1605 | ||
1606 | @smallexample | |
1607 | @group | |
1608 | (setq needles-per-cluster | |
1609 | '((2 . ("Austrian Pine" "Red Pine")) | |
2b3fc6c3 | 1610 | (3 . ("Pitch Pine")) |
ec221d13 | 1611 | @end group |
2b3fc6c3 | 1612 | (5 . ("White Pine")))) |
73804d4b RS |
1613 | @result{} |
1614 | ((2 "Austrian Pine" "Red Pine") | |
2b3fc6c3 RS |
1615 | (3 "Pitch Pine") |
1616 | (5 "White Pine")) | |
73804d4b RS |
1617 | |
1618 | (setq copy (copy-alist needles-per-cluster)) | |
1619 | @result{} | |
1620 | ((2 "Austrian Pine" "Red Pine") | |
2b3fc6c3 RS |
1621 | (3 "Pitch Pine") |
1622 | (5 "White Pine")) | |
73804d4b RS |
1623 | |
1624 | (eq needles-per-cluster copy) | |
1625 | @result{} nil | |
1626 | (equal needles-per-cluster copy) | |
1627 | @result{} t | |
1628 | (eq (car needles-per-cluster) (car copy)) | |
1629 | @result{} nil | |
1630 | (cdr (car (cdr needles-per-cluster))) | |
2b3fc6c3 | 1631 | @result{} ("Pitch Pine") |
ec221d13 | 1632 | @group |
73804d4b RS |
1633 | (eq (cdr (car (cdr needles-per-cluster))) |
1634 | (cdr (car (cdr copy)))) | |
1635 | @result{} t | |
1636 | @end group | |
3e099569 | 1637 | @end smallexample |
2b3fc6c3 RS |
1638 | |
1639 | This example shows how @code{copy-alist} makes it possible to change | |
1640 | the associations of one copy without affecting the other: | |
1641 | ||
3e099569 | 1642 | @smallexample |
2b3fc6c3 | 1643 | @group |
c74c521d | 1644 | (setcdr (assq 3 copy) '("Martian Vacuum Pine")) |
2b3fc6c3 RS |
1645 | (cdr (assq 3 needles-per-cluster)) |
1646 | @result{} ("Pitch Pine") | |
1647 | @end group | |
73804d4b RS |
1648 | @end smallexample |
1649 | @end defun | |
1650 | ||
61b23410 DL |
1651 | @defun assq-delete-all key alist |
1652 | @tindex assq-delete-all | |
8241495d | 1653 | This function deletes from @var{alist} all the elements whose @sc{car} |
66fd2c72 | 1654 | is @code{eq} to @var{key}, much as if you used @code{delq} to delete |
19017752 | 1655 | each such element one by one. It returns the shortened alist, and |
66fd2c72 RS |
1656 | often modifies the original list structure of @var{alist}. For |
1657 | correct results, use the return value of @code{assq-delete-all} rather | |
1658 | than looking at the saved value of @var{alist}. | |
73804d4b | 1659 | |
8241495d | 1660 | @example |
66fd2c72 RS |
1661 | (setq alist '((foo 1) (bar 2) (foo 3) (lose 4))) |
1662 | @result{} ((foo 1) (bar 2) (foo 3) (lose 4)) | |
1663 | (assq-delete-all 'foo alist) | |
8241495d | 1664 | @result{} ((bar 2) (lose 4)) |
66fd2c72 RS |
1665 | alist |
1666 | @result{} ((foo 1) (bar 2) (lose 4)) | |
8241495d RS |
1667 | @end example |
1668 | @end defun | |
ab5796a9 | 1669 | |
0e6fb1e6 LK |
1670 | @defun rassq-delete-all value alist |
1671 | This function deletes from @var{alist} all the elements whose @sc{cdr} | |
1672 | is @code{eq} to @var{value}. It returns the shortened alist, and | |
1673 | often modifies the original list structure of @var{alist}. | |
1674 | @code{rassq-delete-all} is like @code{assq-delete-all} except that it | |
1675 | compares the @sc{cdr} of each @var{alist} association instead of the | |
1676 | @sc{car}. | |
1677 | @end defun | |
1678 | ||
a99eb78d RS |
1679 | @node Rings |
1680 | @section Managing a Fixed-Size Ring of Objects | |
1681 | ||
1682 | @cindex ring data structure | |
1683 | This section describes functions for operating on rings. A | |
1684 | @dfn{ring} is a fixed-size data structure that supports insertion, | |
1685 | deletion, rotation, and modulo-indexed reference and traversal. | |
1686 | ||
1687 | @defun make-ring size | |
1688 | This returns a new ring capable of holding @var{size} objects. | |
1689 | @var{size} should be an integer. | |
1690 | @end defun | |
1691 | ||
1692 | @defun ring-p object | |
0ff13af9 | 1693 | This returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a ring, @code{nil} otherwise. |
a99eb78d RS |
1694 | @end defun |
1695 | ||
1696 | @defun ring-size ring | |
1697 | This returns the maximum capacity of the @var{ring}. | |
1698 | @end defun | |
1699 | ||
1700 | @defun ring-length ring | |
1701 | This returns the number of objects that @var{ring} currently contains. | |
1702 | The value will never exceed that returned by @code{ring-size}. | |
1703 | @end defun | |
1704 | ||
1705 | @defun ring-elements ring | |
eaf664cf | 1706 | This returns a list of the objects in @var{ring}, in order, newest first. |
a99eb78d RS |
1707 | @end defun |
1708 | ||
1709 | @defun ring-copy ring | |
1710 | This returns a new ring which is a copy of @var{ring}. | |
0ff13af9 | 1711 | The new ring contains the same (@code{eq}) objects as @var{ring}. |
a99eb78d RS |
1712 | @end defun |
1713 | ||
1714 | @defun ring-empty-p ring | |
0ff13af9 | 1715 | This returns @code{t} if @var{ring} is empty, @code{nil} otherwise. |
a99eb78d RS |
1716 | @end defun |
1717 | ||
0ff13af9 LT |
1718 | The newest element in the ring always has index 0. Higher indices |
1719 | correspond to older elements. Indices are computed modulo the ring | |
1720 | length. Index @minus{}1 corresponds to the oldest element, @minus{}2 | |
1721 | to the next-oldest, and so forth. | |
a99eb78d RS |
1722 | |
1723 | @defun ring-ref ring index | |
1724 | This returns the object in @var{ring} found at index @var{index}. | |
1725 | @var{index} may be negative or greater than the ring length. If | |
1726 | @var{ring} is empty, @code{ring-ref} signals an error. | |
1727 | @end defun | |
1728 | ||
1729 | @defun ring-insert ring object | |
1730 | This inserts @var{object} into @var{ring}, making it the newest | |
1731 | element, and returns @var{object}. | |
1732 | ||
1733 | If the ring is full, insertion removes the oldest element to | |
1734 | make room for the new element. | |
1735 | @end defun | |
1736 | ||
1737 | @defun ring-remove ring &optional index | |
1738 | Remove an object from @var{ring}, and return that object. The | |
1739 | argument @var{index} specifies which item to remove; if it is | |
1740 | @code{nil}, that means to remove the oldest item. If @var{ring} is | |
1741 | empty, @code{ring-remove} signals an error. | |
1742 | @end defun | |
1743 | ||
1744 | @defun ring-insert-at-beginning ring object | |
1745 | This inserts @var{object} into @var{ring}, treating it as the oldest | |
0ff13af9 | 1746 | element. The return value is not significant. |
a99eb78d RS |
1747 | |
1748 | If the ring is full, this function removes the newest element to make | |
1749 | room for the inserted element. | |
1750 | @end defun | |
1751 | ||
1752 | @cindex fifo data structure | |
1753 | If you are careful not to exceed the ring size, you can | |
1754 | use the ring as a first-in-first-out queue. For example: | |
1755 | ||
1756 | @lisp | |
1757 | (let ((fifo (make-ring 5))) | |
1758 | (mapc (lambda (obj) (ring-insert fifo obj)) | |
1759 | '(0 one "two")) | |
1760 | (list (ring-remove fifo) t | |
1761 | (ring-remove fifo) t | |
1762 | (ring-remove fifo))) | |
1763 | @result{} (0 t one t "two") | |
1764 | @end lisp | |
1765 | ||
ab5796a9 MB |
1766 | @ignore |
1767 | arch-tag: 31fb8a4e-4aa8-4a74-a206-aa00451394d4 | |
1768 | @end ignore |