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1 | @c -*-texinfo-*- |
2 | @c This is part of the GNU Guile Reference Manual. | |
c5f30c4c | 3 | @c Copyright (C) 1996, 1997, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2009, 2010, 2011 |
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4 | @c Free Software Foundation, Inc. |
5 | @c See the file guile.texi for copying conditions. | |
6 | ||
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7 | @node Binding Constructs |
8 | @section Definitions and Variable Bindings | |
9 | ||
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10 | Scheme supports the definition of variables in different contexts. |
11 | Variables can be defined at the top level, so that they are visible in | |
12 | the entire program, and variables can be defined locally to procedures | |
13 | and expressions. This is important for modularity and data abstraction. | |
14 | ||
15 | @menu | |
16 | * Top Level:: Top level variable definitions. | |
17 | * Local Bindings:: Local variable bindings. | |
18 | * Internal Definitions:: Internal definitions. | |
19 | * Binding Reflection:: Querying variable bindings. | |
20 | @end menu | |
21 | ||
22 | ||
23 | @node Top Level | |
24 | @subsection Top Level Variable Definitions | |
25 | ||
26 | @cindex variable definition | |
27 | ||
935c7aca | 28 | At the top level of a program (i.e., not nested within any other |
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29 | expression), a definition of the form |
30 | ||
31 | @lisp | |
32 | (define a @var{value}) | |
33 | @end lisp | |
34 | ||
35 | @noindent | |
36 | defines a variable called @code{a} and sets it to the value @var{value}. | |
37 | ||
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38 | If the variable already exists in the current module, because it has |
39 | already been created by a previous @code{define} expression with the | |
40 | same name, its value is simply changed to the new @var{value}. In this | |
41 | case, then, the above form is completely equivalent to | |
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42 | |
43 | @lisp | |
44 | (set! a @var{value}) | |
45 | @end lisp | |
46 | ||
47 | @noindent | |
48 | This equivalence means that @code{define} can be used interchangeably | |
49 | with @code{set!} to change the value of variables at the top level of | |
50 | the REPL or a Scheme source file. It is useful during interactive | |
51 | development when reloading a Scheme file that you have modified, because | |
52 | it allows the @code{define} expressions in that file to work as expected | |
53 | both the first time that the file is loaded and on subsequent occasions. | |
54 | ||
55 | Note, though, that @code{define} and @code{set!} are not always | |
56 | equivalent. For example, a @code{set!} is not allowed if the named | |
57 | variable does not already exist, and the two expressions can behave | |
58 | differently in the case where there are imported variables visible from | |
59 | another module. | |
60 | ||
61 | @deffn {Scheme Syntax} define name value | |
62 | Create a top level variable named @var{name} with value @var{value}. | |
63 | If the named variable already exists, just change its value. The return | |
64 | value of a @code{define} expression is unspecified. | |
65 | @end deffn | |
66 | ||
67 | The C API equivalents of @code{define} are @code{scm_define} and | |
68 | @code{scm_c_define}, which differ from each other in whether the | |
69 | variable name is specified as a @code{SCM} symbol or as a | |
70 | null-terminated C string. | |
71 | ||
72 | @deffn {C Function} scm_define (sym, value) | |
73 | @deffnx {C Function} scm_c_define (const char *name, value) | |
74 | C equivalents of @code{define}, with variable name specified either by | |
75 | @var{sym}, a symbol, or by @var{name}, a null-terminated C string. Both | |
76 | variants return the new or preexisting variable object. | |
77 | @end deffn | |
78 | ||
79 | @code{define} (when it occurs at top level), @code{scm_define} and | |
80 | @code{scm_c_define} all create or set the value of a variable in the top | |
81 | level environment of the current module. If there was not already a | |
82 | variable with the specified name belonging to the current module, but a | |
83 | similarly named variable from another module was visible through having | |
84 | been imported, the newly created variable in the current module will | |
85 | shadow the imported variable, such that the imported variable is no | |
86 | longer visible. | |
87 | ||
88 | Attention: Scheme definitions inside local binding constructs | |
89 | (@pxref{Local Bindings}) act differently (@pxref{Internal Definitions}). | |
90 | ||
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91 | Many people end up in a development style of adding and changing |
92 | definitions at runtime, building out their program without restarting | |
93 | it. (You can do this using @code{reload-module}, the @code{reload} REPL | |
94 | command, the @code{load} procedure, or even just pasting code into a | |
95 | REPL.) If you are one of these people, you will find that sometimes you | |
96 | there are some variables that you @emph{don't} want to redefine all the | |
97 | time. For these, use @code{define-once}. | |
98 | ||
99 | @fnindex defvar | |
100 | @deffn {Scheme Syntax} define-once name value | |
101 | Create a top level variable named @var{name} with value @var{value}, but | |
102 | only if @var{name} is not already bound in the current module. | |
103 | @end deffn | |
104 | ||
105 | Old Lispers probably know @code{define-once} under its Lisp name, | |
106 | @code{defvar}. | |
107 | ||
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108 | |
109 | @node Local Bindings | |
110 | @subsection Local Variable Bindings | |
111 | ||
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112 | @cindex local bindings |
113 | @cindex local variables | |
114 | ||
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115 | As opposed to definitions at the top level, which creates bindings that |
116 | are visible to all code in a module, it is also possible to define | |
117 | variables which are only visible in a well-defined part of the program. | |
118 | Normally, this part of a program will be a procedure or a subexpression | |
119 | of a procedure. | |
07d83abe | 120 | |
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121 | With the constructs for local binding (@code{let}, @code{let*}, |
122 | @code{letrec}, and @code{letrec*}), the Scheme language has a block | |
123 | structure like most other programming languages since the days of | |
124 | @sc{Algol 60}. Readers familiar to languages like C or Java should | |
125 | already be used to this concept, but the family of @code{let} | |
126 | expressions has a few properties which are well worth knowing. | |
07d83abe | 127 | |
935c7aca | 128 | The most basic local binding construct is @code{let}. |
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129 | |
130 | @deffn syntax let bindings body | |
131 | @var{bindings} has the form | |
132 | ||
133 | @lisp | |
134 | ((@var{variable1} @var{init1}) @dots{}) | |
135 | @end lisp | |
136 | ||
137 | that is zero or more two-element lists of a variable and an arbitrary | |
138 | expression each. All @var{variable} names must be distinct. | |
139 | ||
140 | A @code{let} expression is evaluated as follows. | |
141 | ||
142 | @itemize @bullet | |
143 | @item | |
144 | All @var{init} expressions are evaluated. | |
145 | ||
146 | @item | |
147 | New storage is allocated for the @var{variables}. | |
148 | ||
149 | @item | |
150 | The values of the @var{init} expressions are stored into the variables. | |
151 | ||
152 | @item | |
153 | The expressions in @var{body} are evaluated in order, and the value of | |
154 | the last expression is returned as the value of the @code{let} | |
155 | expression. | |
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156 | @end itemize |
157 | ||
158 | The @var{init} expressions are not allowed to refer to any of the | |
159 | @var{variables}. | |
160 | @end deffn | |
161 | ||
ecb87335 | 162 | The other binding constructs are variations on the same theme: making new |
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163 | values, binding them to variables, and executing a body in that new, |
164 | extended lexical context. | |
165 | ||
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166 | @deffn syntax let* bindings body |
167 | Similar to @code{let}, but the variable bindings are performed | |
168 | sequentially, that means that all @var{init} expression are allowed to | |
169 | use the variables defined on their left in the binding list. | |
170 | ||
171 | A @code{let*} expression can always be expressed with nested @code{let} | |
172 | expressions. | |
173 | ||
174 | @lisp | |
175 | (let* ((a 1) (b a)) | |
176 | b) | |
177 | @equiv{} | |
178 | (let ((a 1)) | |
179 | (let ((b a)) | |
180 | b)) | |
181 | @end lisp | |
182 | @end deffn | |
183 | ||
184 | @deffn syntax letrec bindings body | |
185 | Similar to @code{let}, but it is possible to refer to the @var{variable} | |
186 | from lambda expression created in any of the @var{inits}. That is, | |
187 | procedures created in the @var{init} expression can recursively refer to | |
188 | the defined variables. | |
189 | ||
190 | @lisp | |
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191 | (letrec ((even? (lambda (n) |
192 | (if (zero? n) | |
193 | #t | |
194 | (odd? (- n 1))))) | |
195 | (odd? (lambda (n) | |
196 | (if (zero? n) | |
197 | #f | |
198 | (even? (- n 1)))))) | |
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199 | (even? 88)) |
200 | @result{} | |
201 | #t | |
202 | @end lisp | |
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203 | |
204 | Note that while the @var{init} expressions may refer to the new | |
205 | variables, they may not access their values. For example, making the | |
206 | @code{even?} function above creates a closure (@pxref{About Closure}) | |
207 | referencing the @code{odd?} variable. But @code{odd?} can't be called | |
208 | until after execution has entered the body. | |
209 | @end deffn | |
210 | ||
211 | @deffn syntax letrec* bindings body | |
212 | Similar to @code{letrec}, except the @var{init} expressions are bound to | |
213 | their variables in order. | |
214 | ||
215 | @code{letrec*} thus relaxes the letrec restriction, in that later | |
216 | @var{init} expressions may refer to the values of previously bound | |
217 | variables. | |
218 | ||
219 | @lisp | |
220 | (letrec ((a 42) | |
51607806 | 221 | (b (+ a 10))) ;; Illegal access |
935c7aca | 222 | (* a b)) |
51607806 | 223 | ;; The behavior of the expression above is unspecified |
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224 | |
225 | (letrec* ((a 42) | |
226 | (b (+ a 10))) | |
227 | (* a b)) | |
228 | @result{} 2184 | |
229 | @end lisp | |
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230 | @end deffn |
231 | ||
232 | There is also an alternative form of the @code{let} form, which is used | |
233 | for expressing iteration. Because of the use as a looping construct, | |
234 | this form (the @dfn{named let}) is documented in the section about | |
235 | iteration (@pxref{while do, Iteration}) | |
236 | ||
237 | @node Internal Definitions | |
238 | @subsection Internal definitions | |
239 | ||
240 | @c FIXME::martin: Review me! | |
241 | ||
242 | A @code{define} form which appears inside the body of a @code{lambda}, | |
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243 | @code{let}, @code{let*}, @code{letrec}, @code{letrec*} or equivalent |
244 | expression is called an @dfn{internal definition}. An internal | |
245 | definition differs from a top level definition (@pxref{Top Level}), | |
246 | because the definition is only visible inside the complete body of the | |
247 | enclosing form. Let us examine the following example. | |
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248 | |
249 | @lisp | |
250 | (let ((frumble "froz")) | |
251 | (define banana (lambda () (apple 'peach))) | |
252 | (define apple (lambda (x) x)) | |
253 | (banana)) | |
254 | @result{} | |
255 | peach | |
256 | @end lisp | |
257 | ||
258 | Here the enclosing form is a @code{let}, so the @code{define}s in the | |
259 | @code{let}-body are internal definitions. Because the scope of the | |
260 | internal definitions is the @strong{complete} body of the | |
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261 | @code{let}-expression, the @code{lambda}-expression which gets bound to |
262 | the variable @code{banana} may refer to the variable @code{apple}, even | |
263 | though its definition appears lexically @emph{after} the definition of | |
264 | @code{banana}. This is because a sequence of internal definition acts | |
265 | as if it were a @code{letrec*} expression. | |
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266 | |
267 | @lisp | |
268 | (let () | |
269 | (define a 1) | |
270 | (define b 2) | |
271 | (+ a b)) | |
272 | @end lisp | |
273 | ||
274 | @noindent | |
275 | is equivalent to | |
276 | ||
277 | @lisp | |
278 | (let () | |
935c7aca | 279 | (letrec* ((a 1) (b 2)) |
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280 | (+ a b))) |
281 | @end lisp | |
282 | ||
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283 | Internal definitions are only allowed at the beginning of the body of an |
284 | enclosing expression. They may not be mixed with other expressions. | |
285 | ||
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286 | Another noteworthy difference to top level definitions is that within |
287 | one group of internal definitions all variable names must be distinct. | |
288 | That means where on the top level a second define for a given variable | |
289 | acts like a @code{set!}, an exception is thrown for internal definitions | |
290 | with duplicate bindings. | |
291 | ||
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292 | As a historical note, it used to be that internal bindings were expanded |
293 | in terms of @code{letrec}, not @code{letrec*}. This was the situation | |
294 | for the R5RS report and before. However with the R6RS, it was recognized | |
295 | that sequential definition was a more intuitive expansion, as in the | |
296 | following case: | |
07d83abe | 297 | |
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298 | @lisp |
299 | (let () | |
300 | (define a 1) | |
301 | (define b (+ a a)) | |
302 | (+ a b)) | |
303 | @end lisp | |
304 | ||
305 | @noindent | |
306 | Guile decided to follow the R6RS in this regard, and now expands | |
307 | internal definitions using @code{letrec*}. | |
07d83abe | 308 | |
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309 | |
310 | @node Binding Reflection | |
311 | @subsection Querying variable bindings | |
312 | ||
313 | Guile provides a procedure for checking whether a symbol is bound in the | |
314 | top level environment. | |
315 | ||
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316 | @deffn {Scheme Procedure} defined? sym [module] |
317 | @deffnx {C Function} scm_defined_p (sym, module) | |
318 | Return @code{#t} if @var{sym} is defined in the module @var{module} or | |
319 | the current module when @var{module} is not specified; otherwise return | |
320 | @code{#f}. | |
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321 | @end deffn |
322 | ||
323 | ||
324 | @c Local Variables: | |
325 | @c TeX-master: "guile.texi" | |
326 | @c End: |